Introduction To Physiological and Pathological Chemistry Sixth EditionPDF电子书下载

PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE 19

CHAPTER 1 Introduction(Katharine Densford Dreves,RN,BA,MA,DSc,LLD) 21

Reactions of students to the course in chemistry 21

Recommended method of study 21

Definitions 22

Why do we study chemistry? 22

Word regarding the author 24

CHAPTER 2 Metric system 26

Centigrade temperature scale 26

Units of length 26

Units of weight 26

Units of volume 29

Study questions 29

CHAPTER 3 Chemical substances 30

Physical and chemical changes 30

Simple and compound substances 31

Elements and compounds 31

Factors influencing the activities of substances 32

Factors affecting the speed of chemical reactions 33

Study questions 34

CHAPTER 4 Atoms and molecules 35

Atomic theory 35

Atomic weight 35

Atomic numbers 35

Molecules 36

Molecular weight 36

Subatomic particles 37

Supposed structure of the atom 37

Isotopes 40

Van der Waals forces 42

Study questions 42

CHAPTER 5 Chemical shorthand and the concept of valence 43

Atomic symbol 43

Formula for the compound 43

Concept of valence 45

Structural formula 46

Chemical equation 46

Radicals 49

Prediction of the products of reaction 50

Relationship between valence and atomic structure 51

Study questions 52

CHAPTER 6 Oxygen 53

Occurrence 53

Discovery of oxygen 53

Preparation 53

Properties 54

Vital importance 55

Burning 55

Kindling temperature 55

Extinguishing fires 55

Importance of oxygen gas in everyday life 56

Commercial uses of oxygen 57

Use of oxygen in therapy 57

Problem of the rusting of iron 58

Oxides 58

Study questions 58

CHAPTER 7 Energy transformations 60

Definition 60

Energy conversions 60

Measurement of energy 60

Chemical energy 61

Energy production from foods 61

Study questions 62

CHAPTER 8 Water 63

Composition 63

Occurrence 63

Physical properties of biological importance 63

Reaction with metals 64

Reaction with oxides 65

Hydrates 65

Hydrolysis 66

Study questions 66

CHAPTER 9 Solutions 68

Meaning of the termsolution 68

Solvent and solute 68

Solutions with liquid solvents 68

Factors influencing solubility 68

Types of solution 69

Freezing and boiling points of solutions 69

Methods of expressing concentration 69

Surface tension 71

Interfacial tension 72

Surface active substances 72

Emulsions 72

Osmotic pressure 74

Colloidal dispersions 75

Dialysis 76

Colloid osmotic pressure 76

Adsorption 77

Chromatography 78

Study questions 78

CHAPTER 10 Acids,bases,and salts 80

Inorganic and organic compounds 80

Definitions 80

Indicators 80

Acids 81

General properties of acids 81

Physical properties of acids 84

Rules for naming acids 84

Bases 85

General properties of bases 85

Physical properties of baser 86

Rule for naming bases 86

Salts 87

General properties of salts 87

Salts responsible for hard water 88

Acid salts 89

Rules for naming salts 89

Study questions 91

CHAPTER 11 Ionization 92

Electrolytes and non-electrolytes 92

Strong and weak electrolytes 92

Osmotic pressure of electrolytes 92

Theory of ionization 94

Electrovalence and the nature of ions 95

Covalence 95

Conduction of an electric current by electrolyte solutions 99

Acids and bases in water solution 99

Salts in water solution 100

Physiological importance of ions 101

Equilibrium in electrolyte solutions 101

Water as an electrolyte 102

pH notation 103

Importance of pH control 104

Buffers 105

Study questions 106

CHAPTER 12 Oxidation and reduction 107

Oxidation-reduction reactions 107

Metathetic reactions 107

Electron transfers in oxidation-reduction reactions 107

Oxidizing and reducing agents 108

Importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in medicine 109

Study questions 111

CHAPTER 13 Periodic table and some important elements 112

Periodicity of the elements 112

Modern periodic table 113

Hydrogen 113

Alkali metals 115

Alkaline-earth metals 115

Boron and aluminum 116

Silicon,tin,and lead 116

Nitrogen,phosphorus,arsenic,antimony,and bismuth 118

Sulfur 119

Halogens 120

Noble gases 121

Copper,silver,and gold 121

Zinc and mercury 122

Iron 124

Precious stones 124

Study questions 124

CHAPTER 14 Nuclear chemistry and atomic energy 126

Introduction 126

Natural radioactivity 126

Bombardment with charged particles 127

Bombardment with neutrons 130

Atomic energy 130

Nuclear fusion 132

Use of radioactive elements as tracers 132

Study questions 136

CHAPTER 15 Introduction to organic chemistry 137

Introduction 137

Sources of organic compounds 138

Importance of organic substances 138

Comparison of organic and inorganic reactions 138

Carbon as an element 138

Important properties of the carbon atom 139

Use of structural formulas in organic chemistry 140

Saturated and unsaturated compounds 142

Characteristic groups 142

Divisions of organic compounds 143

Study questions 144

CHAPTER 16 Aliphatic organic compounds 145

Hydrocarbons 145

Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons 145

Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons 149

Reaction of hydrocarbons with oxygen 150

Reaction of hydrocarbons with halogens 150

Hydrocarbon radicals 152

Alcohols 152

Definition 152

Types of alcohol 153

Comparison of alcohols and inorganic hydroxides 153

Reactions with oxygen 154

Some important alcohols 154

Aldehydes and ketones 156

Definitions 156

Reactions 157

Important aldehydes 157

Important ketones 158

Organic acids and salts 158

Definitions and properties 158

Typical organic acids 159

Esters 160

Definition and properties 160

Important esters 163

Ethers 163

Amines 164

Study questions 166

CHAPTER 17 Isomerism of organic compounds 168

Introduction 168

Chain or nuclear isomerism 168

Geometric or cis-trans isomerism 168

Tautomerism or dynamic isomerism 170

Position isomerism 170

Optical isomerism 171

Summary 175

Study questions 175

CHAPTER 18 Cyclic organic compounds 176

Cycloparaffins or naphthenes 176

Aromatic compounds 177

Aromatic hydrocarbons 177

Benzene 177

Structure of benzene 177

Properties of benzene 181

Other important aromatic hydrocarbons 182

Oxygen derivatives of the aromatic hydrocarbons 184

Aromatic alcohols 184

Benzyl alcohol 184

Phenethyl alcohol 184

Phenols 185

Naphthols 188

Alkylated phenols 188

Aromatic aldehydes 189

Benzaldehyde 189

Aromatic ketones 190

Benzophenone 190

Acetophenone 191

Chloracetophenone 191

Quinones 191

Aromatic acids 191

Benzoic acid 192

Salicylic acid 192

Aromatic amines 193

Primary aromatic amines 193

Aniline 193

Secondary aromatic amines 195

Tertiary aromatic amines 195

Dyes 195

Heterocyclic compounds 197

Heterocyclic compounds with five-membered rings 198

Furane 198

Thiophene 198

Thiazole 198

Pyrrole 198

Imidazole 199

Heterocyclic compounds with six-membered rings 199

Pyridine 199

Heterocyclic compounds with condensed rings 200

Indole 200

Quinoline 201

Other heterocyclic compounds 201

Ureides 201

Pyrimidines 202

Purines 203

Alkaloids 203

Study questions 205

PART TWO PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 207

CHAPTER 19 Nature of enzymes 209

Definitions 209

Chemical nature of enzymes 209

Speed of enzyme action 209

Enzyme specificity 210

Proenzymes 210

Activators and inhibitors 210

Coenzymes 211

Types of reaction catalyzed by enzymes 211

Autolysis 214

Diseases of enzymic defect 214

Mechanism of drug action 214

Study questions 217

CHAPTER 20 Chemical nature of lipids 218

Definition of lipid 218

Types of lipid 218

Types of fatty acid 219

Soaps 220

Chemical nature of fats 222

Oils 223

Hydrogenation of fats 223

Acrolein test 223

Rancidity of fats 224

Phospholipids 224

Glycolipids 225

Waxes 225

Sterols 226

Study questions 227

CHAPTER 21 Metabolism of lipids 228

Definition of metabolism 228

Summary of fat digestion 228

Anabolic products of fatty adds 229

Functions of depot fat 229

Catabolism of fatty adds 230

Ketone bodies 233

Causes of ketosis 234

Function of the liver in fatty add catabolism 234

Question of conversion of fat to carbohydrate 235

Functions of phospholipids 235

Sterol metabolism 236

Obesity 239

Study questions 241

CHAPTER 22 Chemical nature of carbohydrates 243

Definitions 243

Types of carbohydrate 243

Hexoses 243

Fermentation 246

Pentoses 246

Disaccharides 247

Some important polysaccharides 248

Glucosides 250

Origin of carbohydrates 250

Study questions 251

CHAPTER 23 Metabolism of carbohydrates 252

Summary of carbohydrate digestion 252

Fate of fructose and galactose 252

Glycogen formation 253

Glycogenolysis 254

Blood sugar level 254

Chemical changes in muscle contraction 254

Metabolism of nerve tissue 258

Conversion of carbohydrate to fat 258

Energy of carbohydrate oxidation 258

Protein-sparing action of carbohydrate 259

Action of epinephrine 259

Functions of insulin 259

Glucagon 262

Study questions 264

CHAPTER 24 Chemical nature of proteins 265

Introduction 265

Types of protein 265

Isoelectric point 266

Amino acids 268

Methods of making proteins insoluble 272

Protein solvents 273

Color reactions of proteins 274

Hemoglobin 274

Methemoglobin 275

Carbon monoxide poisoning 275

Nucleoproteins 275

Study questions 282

CHAPTER 25 Metabolism of proteins 283

Summary of protein digestion 283

Anabolic products of amino acids 283

Essential amino acids 283

Amino acid catabolism 284

Fate of urea 284

Formation of ammonium salts by the kidneys 284

Ammonium salts in blood 285

Energy of protein catabolism 285

Purine metabolism 285

Pyrimidine metabolism 286

Creatine and creatinine 287

Anabolism of hemoglobin 288

Catabolism of hemoglobin 288

Special transformations of certain amino acids in the body 291

Glycine 291

Cystine 291

Tyrosine 291

Histidine 292

Methionine 292

Metabolic interrelationships 294

Study questions 295

CHAPTER 26 Chemistry of the digestive tract 297

Introduction 297

Teeth 297

Saliva 300

Gastric juice 300

Secretin 304

Pancreatic juice 305

Bile 306

Intestinal juice 308

Enterogastrone 309

Bacterial action in the intestine 309

Feces 310

Study questions 311

CHAPTER 27 Inorganic metabolism 313

Water 313

Sodium bicarbonate 315

Sodium chloride 316

Calcium 316

Phosphorus 318

Potassium 318

Iron 319

Iodine 320

Fluorine 320

Stimulating and depressing ions 321

Study questions 321

CHAPTER 28 Blood 323

Introduction 323

Transport of oxygen to the tissues 327

Transport of carbon dioxide to the lungs 328

Acid-base balance 329

Plasma proteins 331

Blood clotting 335

Nonprotein nitrogen 339

Blood sugar level 340

Plasma lipids 340

Some important inorganic components 341

Study questions 342

CHAPTER 29 Urine 344

Introduction 344

Formation of urine 344

Collection of urine for analysis 345

Volume of urine 346

Color of urine 347

Specific gravity of urine 347

Reaction of urine 348

Composition of urine 348

Abnormal components of urine 348

Urine sediment 350

Study questions 355

CHAPTER 30 Hormones 356

Introduction 356

Hormones of the ovary 356

Hormones of the testis 363

Hormone of the thyroid gland 365

Hormone of the parathyroid glands 369

Hormones of the adrenal glands 371

Hormone of the pancreas 378

Hormones of the pituitary gland 380

Miscellaneous postulated factors 384

General adaptation syndrome 389

Hormones of the digestive tract 391

Antihormones 392

Renin mechanism 392

Study questions 393

CHAPTER 31 Vitamins 395

Introduction 395

Vitamin A 396

Provitamins 396

Chemical nature of vitamin A 396

Vitamin A deficiency 396

Storage of vitamin A in the body 399

Absorption of vitamin A 400

Standardization and requirements of vitamin A 400

Sources of vitamin A 400

Vitamin B complex 401

Thiamin(vitamin B1) 401

Chemical nature of thiamin 401

Thiamin deficiency 402

Thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme 405

Absorption and storage of thiamin 405

Requirements of thiamin 407

Sources of thiamin 407

Riboflavin 407

Chemical nature of riboflavin 407

Relation to the yellow enzyme 407

Riboflavin in nutrition 407

Suggested requirements of riboflavin 408

Nicotinic acid and nicotinic acid amide 408

Role in cell oxidations 408

Pellagra 409

Vitamin B12(cyanocobalamin) 411

Folic acid complex 412

Pyridoxine 414

Pantothenic acid 415

Choline 416

Biotin 417

Inositol 418

Ascorbic acid(vitamin C) 418

Chemical nature of ascorbic acid 418

Deficiency of ascorbic acid 419

Ascorbic acid deficiency in animals 421

Requirements of ascorbic acid 421

Food sources of ascorbic acid 422

Citrin(vitamin P) 422

Vitamin D 423

Chemical nature of vitamin D 423

Supposed function of vitamin D 424

Deficiency of vitamin D 424

Hypervitaminosis D 427

Standardization and requirements of vitamin D 427

Sources of vitamin D 427

Vitamin E 427

Chemical nature of vitamin E 427

Deficiency in rats 428

Deficiency in other animals 428

Possible role in human nutrition 429

Sources of vitamin E 429

Vitamin K 429

Chemical nature of vitamin K 429

Function of vitamin K 430

Use of vitamin K in human pathology 430

Sources of vitamin K 431

Study questions 431

CHAPTER 32 Introduction to nutrition 433

Introduction 433

Basal metabolism 434

Energy requirement 435

Protein requirement 438

Mineral(inorganic) requirement 440

Lipid requirement 442

Acid and alkaline effects of foods 443

Ketogenic and antiketogenic diets 443

Residue and water in the diet 443

Diet in pregnancy and lactation 444

Nutrition in infancy and childhood 444

Reducing diets 447

Study questions 452

Appendix 453

International atomic weights 453

Antibiotics 454

Precious stones 456

Some agents used in chemical warfare 461

Common organic radicals 464

Amino acids commonly found in proteins 466