PART Ⅰ AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW 1
CHAPTER 1 The American Legal System: The Source of Environmental Law 3
Sources of Law 3
The Legislative Branch as a Source of Statutory Law 3
The Judicial Branch as a Source of Case Law 8
The Executive Branch as a Source of Law 10
Administrative Agencies as a Source of Law 11
Public and Private Law 12
Criminal Law and Civil Law 12
Case and Statutory Law 12
Classifications of Law 12
Constitutional Principles Underlying the American Legal System 25
Federalism 25
Federal Preemption 26
The Commerce Clause 26
The Fourth Amendment 29
The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments 30
A Constitutional Right to Environmental Protection? 35
Concluding Remarks 38
Questions for Review and Discussion 38
For Further Reading 39
On the Internet 39
Notes 40
Controversial Issues 42
Criticisms of the Adversary System 43
An Introduction to the Adversary System 43
The Adversary System 43
CHAPTER 2 The Litigation Process and Other Tools for Resolving Environmental Disputes 43
The U.S. Dual Court System 44
The Federal Court System 44
The State Court System 46
Choice of Courts 46
Primary Actors in the Legal System 50
The Attorney 50
The Judge 51
The Jurv 52
Steps in Civil Litigation 53
The Threshold Issues 53
Pretrial 58
The Trial 62
Appellate Procedure 65
Alternatives to Civil Litigation 66
Arbitration 67
Mediation 68
Concluding Remarks 70
Questions for Review and Discussion 71
For Further Reading 71
On the Internet 72
Notes 72
Controversial Issues 73
CHAPTER 3 Administrative Law and Its Impact on the Environment 75
Creation of Administrative Agencies 75
Rule Making 76
Functions of Administrative Agencies 76
Adjudication 81
Administrative Activities 84
Limitations on Agency Powers 85
Statutory Limitations 85
Institutional Limitations 86
Important Agencies Affecting the Environment 89
Executive versus Independent Agencies 89
The Environmental Protection Agency 90
Hybrid Agencies 90
Interagency Cooperation 96
The Department of the Interior and Its Agencies 98
The Department of Agriculture and Its Agencies 100
The Department of Labor and Its Agencies 100
Concluding Remarks 101
Questions for Review and Discussion 101
For Further Reading 101
Notes 102
On the Internet 102
Controversial Issues 104
PART Ⅱ THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 105
CHAPTER 4 An Introduction to Environmental Law and Policy 107
The Need for Regulation 107
Tragedy of the Commons 107
Free Rider Problem 108
Pollution as an Externality 108
Environmental Ethic 109
Tort Law 110
Alternative Ways to Control Pollution 110
Subsidies, Emissions Charges, and Marketable Emissions Permits 112
Green Taxes 113
Direct Regulation 114
Evolution of Our Environmental Policy 114
The Origins of Our Environmental Policy 114
The 1970s: The Environmental Decade 115
The Early 1990s 116
The 1980s 116
An Increasing Use of Market Forces 117
The Middle to Late 1990s 119
The Beginning of the 21st Century 121
National Environmental Policy Act 122
Council on Environmental Quality 122
Environmental Impact Statement(EIS) 124
Alternatives to the EIS 130
Effectiveness of NEPA 132
Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 132
Concluding Remarks 135
Questions for Review and Discussion 135
For Further Reading 135
On the Internet 136
Notes 136
Controversial Issues 138
Sulfur Dioxide 139
The Major Air Pollutants 139
CHAPTER 5 Air-Quality Control 139
Nitrogen Oxides 140
Carbon Monoxide 141
Ozone 143
Particulates 143
Lead 144
Airborne Toxins 144
Some Significant Air-Quality Problems 144
Acid Deposition 144
Depletion of the Ozone Layer 146
Human-Induced Climate Change 147
Indoor Pollution 151
The Initial Approach to Air-Quality Control 152
The Current Approach to Air Quality Control 155
National Ambient Air Quality Standards 156
No Significant Deterioration(NSD) 159
New Source Performance Standards 160
Mobile Source Performance Standards 162
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments 164
1990 Air Toxins Program 164
Acid Rain Control Program 166
Enforcement of the 1990 Act 168
Solutions Beyond the Clean Air-Act 168
Concluding Remarks 169
Questions for Review and Discussion 169
On the Internet 170
For Further Reading 170
Notes 171
Controversial Issues 174
CHAPTER 6 Water-Quality Control 175
The Major Water Pollutants 175
Pathogens 176
Conventional Organics 177
Toxic Trace Organics 178
Heavy Metals 179
Nutrients 179
Ionizing Radiation 180
Other Measures 180
Some Significant Water-Quality Problems 181
Trace Levels of Toxic Organics 181
Lead and Copper 182
Radon and Other Radionuclides 183
Protecting Water Through Government Actions 184
Water Rights 184
Protecting the Waters of the Nation 187
Protecting Drinking Water 193
Concluding Remarks 197
Questions for Review and Discussion 198
For Further Reading 198
On the Internet 198
Notes 199
Controversial Issues 200
CHAPTER 7 Controlling Toxic Substances 201
Identification of Potentially Toxic Substances 201
Scientific Uncertainty 202
Risk Assessment 203
Federal Regulation of Toxic Substances 205
Toxic Substances Control Act 207
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 210
Food Quality Protection Act 215
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 215
Progress Under the Acts 217
International Regulation of Toxic Substances 217
Rotterdam Convention 218
Toxic Torts 219
Theories of Recovery 219
Problems in Establishing Causation 220
Enterprise Liability 222
Punitive Damages 223
Questions for Review and Discussion 224
Concluding Remarks 224
For Further Reading 225
On the Internet 225
Notes 225
Controversial Issues 227
CHAPTER 8 Waste Management and Hazardous Releases 229
Waste Control Techniques 229
The Problem with Waste 230
Municipal Solid Waste 234
Requirements for Managing Waste 234
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 235
Hazardous Waste 236
Enforcement of RCRA 241
CERCLA: An Overview 243
Emergency Response Plans and Right to Know 244
Federal Response to Contaminated Sites 246
Removal Action 247
Remedial Response 248
Brownfields 252
Underground Storage Tank Program 253
Concluding Remarks 255
Questions for Review and Discussion 255
For Further Reading 256
On the Internet 257
Notes 257
Controversial Issues 259
The Crisis Begins 261
CHAPTER 9 Energy 261
Energy Policy: A Historical Overview 261
A Return to Complacency 263
A Bright Spot: The Energy Policy Act 263
A Voluntary Energy Policy 265
What Now? 267
Energy Consumption and Production 269
Coal: The Oldest Energy Source 271
Problems with Coal 272
Regulation of the Mining Industry 273
Petroleum and Natural Gas 275
Onshore Development Problems 275
Offshore Development Problems 276
Oil Spills 277
Nuclear Energy 279
History of Nuclear Energy Development 279
Problems with Nuclear Energy 280
Regulation of the Nuclear Industry 282
Hydropower 282
Renewable Fuels 283
Solar Energy 284
Wind Energy 286
Biomass Energy 286
Geothermal Energy 286
For Further Reading 287
Questions for Review and Discussion 287
Hydrogen Fuel 287
Concluding Remarks 287
On the Internet 288
Notes 288
Controversial Issues 291
CHAPTER 10 Natural Resources 293
Protecting Public Lands 293
Forests 293
Regulation of Public Lands 295
Rangelands 295
Wetlands, Estuaries, and Coastal Areas 298
Benefits of Wetlands 300
Destruction of Wetlands 300
Regulations to Preserve Coastal Areas, Estuaries, and Wetlands 301
Protection of the Great Lakes 306
Wild and Scenic Rivers System 307
Endangered Species 307
The Global Extinction Crisis 312
Questions for Review and Discussion 314
Concluding Remarks 314
For Further Reading 315
On the Internet 315
Notes 315
Controversial Issues 317
CHAPTER 11 International Environmental Law 319
The Need for International Environmental Law 319
Overpopulation 319
Loss of Biological Diversity 321
The Global Commons 322
Environmental Disasters and Transboundary Pollution 323
The Nature of International Law 324
Sources of International Environmental Law 324
Conventional Law 324
Customary Law 325
Institutions That Effectuate and Influence International Environmental Law 327
United Nations 327
World Bank 329
Global Environment Facility 330
European Union 331
Addressing Specific International Environmental Problems 332
Transboundary Pollution 332
Choice of Forums 336
The Global Commons 337
Preservation of Biological Diversity 344
Rio Summit 347
The Future of International Environmental Law 347
Environmentalism and Trade 349
Concluding Remarks 352
Questions for Review and Discussion 353
For Further Reading 353
On the Internet 354
Notes 354
Controversial Issues 357
Appendix: Abbreviations and Acronyms 359
Index 362