Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics 1
1.1 What is language? 1
1.2 The design of language 3
1.2.1 Arbitrariness 3
1.2.2 Duality 5
1.3 The functions of language 6
1.4 What is linguistics? 7
1.5 Some basic distinctions in linguistics 8
1.5.1 Langue and parole 8
1.5.2 Competence and performance 9
1.5.3 Synchronic and diachronic studies 11
1.6 Major branches of general linguistics 12
1.6.1 Phonology 13
1.6.2 Syntax 13
1.6.3 Semantics 13
1.6.4 Pragmatics 13
Exercises 14
Chapter 2 Phonology 15
2.1 Phonetics 15
2.1.1 Consonants 16
2.1.1.1 Manners of articulation 17
2.1.1.2 Places of articulation 20
2.1.2 Vowels 22
2.1.2.1 Close,half-close,half-open,open 22
2.1.2.2 Front,central,back 23
2.1.2.3 Rounded and unrounded 24
2.1.2.4 Tense and lax 24
2.1.2.5 Monophthongs and diphthongs 24
2.2 Phonology 25
2.2.1 Phonetics and phonology 26
2.2.2 Some important definitions in phonology 27
2.2.2.1 Phonemes and allophones 27
2.2.2.2 Minimal pairs 29
2.2.2.3 Complementary distribution 29
2.2.2.4 Free variation 30
2.2.2.5 Distinctive features 30
2.2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions 32
2.2.4 Prosodic phonology and suprasegmental phonology 33
2.2.4.1 Stress 34
2.2.4.2 Syllable 36
2.2.4.3 Intonation 38
2.2.5 Functions of intonation 39
Exercises 41
Chapter 3 Morphology 43
3.1 Morpho1ogy 43
3.2 What is a morpheme? 44
3.2.1 Types of morphemes 45
3.2.1.1 Free-bound 46
3.2.1.2 Inflectional-derivational 46
3.2.2 Morpheme and phoneme 47
3.3 Word-formation 48
3.4 Open classes and closed classes 49
3.5 Lexical change 49
3.5.1 Deterioration and elevation 49
3.5.2 Specialization and extension 50
3.5.3 Concretization and metaphorization 51
Exercises 51
Chapter 4 Syntax 53
4.1 Overview 53
4.1.1 The goal of syntactic study 54
4.1.2 Criteria of adequacy 56
4.2 Syntactic categories 57
4.2.1 Lexical vs functional categories 57
4.2.2 Parsing 59
4.2.3 The principle of projection 61
4.3 Syntactic structure 61
4.3.1 The structure of phrases 61
4.3.1.1 Noun phrases 61
4.3.1.2 Prepositional phrases 63
4.3.1.3 Verb phrases 64
4.3.1.4 Other phrases 65
4.3.1.5 Adverbial phrases 65
4.3.2 Generalization on phrase structures:X-bar Theory 66
4.3.3 The Structure of sentences 67
4.4 Structural relations 70
4.4.1 Dominance vs precedence 70
4.4.2 C-command vs government 71
4.4.3 Structural ambiguity 75
4.5 A generative grammar 76
4.6 Transformational rules 77
4.6.1 Inversion in yes-no questions 77
4.6.2 Particle movement 79
4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure 81
4.7 Embedded clauses 84
4.8 Summing up 85
Exercises 85
Chapter 5 Semantics 89
5.1 What is semantics? 89
5.2 Word meaning 90
5.3 Sentence meaning 95
5.4 Seven types of meaning 96
5.4.1 Conceptual meaning 97
5.4.2 Connotative meaning 97
5.4.3 Social meaning 98
5.4.4 Affective meaning 98
5.4.5 Reflected meaning 99
5.4.6 Collocative meaning 100
5.4.7 Thematic meaning 100
5.5 Sense relations 101
5.5.1 Lexical relations 101
5.5.1.1 Homonymy 101
5.5.1.2 Polysemy 102
5.5.1.3 Synonymy 102
5.5.1.4 Opposites(Antonymy) 103
5.5.1.5 Hyponymy 105
5.5.2 Sentence relations 106
5.5.2.1 Entailment 106
5.5.2.2 Presupposition 107
5.5.2.3 Synonymy 108
5.5.2.4 Controdiction 108
5.5.2.5 Tautology 108
5.5.2.6 Inconsistency 108
5.5.2.7 Anomaly 108
5.6 Componential analysis 109
5.7 Extralinguistic context 111
Exercises 113
Chapter 6 Varieties of Language 116
6.1 Definition 116
6.2 Dialect 116
6.2.1 Regional dialect 117
6.2.2 Temporal dialect 118
6.2.3 Social dialect 119
6.2.3.1 Education 120
6.2.3.2 Class 121
6.2.3.3 Sex 121
6.2.3.4 Age 122
6.2.3.5 Ethnic background 123
6.2.4 Idiolect 125
6.2.5 Standard dialect 126
6.3 Registers 127
6.3.1 Field of discourse 128
6.3.2 Tenor of discourse 128
6.3.3 Mode of discourse 129
Exercises 129
Chapter 7 Language and Thought 132
7.1 Introduction:a classic issue 132
7.2 The views of Saussure,Wittgenstein,and Chomsky 134
7.2.1 Saussure 135
7.2.2 Wittgenstein 136
7.2.3 Chomsky 138
7.3 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 140
7.3.1 Linguistic relativity 141
7.3.2 Linguistic determinism 143
7.4 Features of language and thought 148
7.5 Metaphor,iconicity and schema in cognitive processes 151
7.5.1 Metaphorical thinking 152
7.5.2 Iconic thinking 154
7.5.3 Schema 155
7.5.4 Integration of metaphor,iconicity,and schemata 156
Exercises 157
Chapter 8 Pragmatics 159
8.1 What is pragmatics? 159
8.1.1 A new branch of linguistics 159
8.1.2 Study of meaning 160
8.1.3 Semantics,grammar,pragmatics and syntax:Division of work 160
8.1.4 What on earth is pragmatics? 163
8.2 Timeline of pragmatics 167
8.3 Topics in pragmatics 168
8.3.1 General/theoretical/linguistic pragmatics or micropragmatics 168
8.3.1.1 Deixis 169
8.3.1.2 Presupposition 170
8.3.1.3 Conversational implicature 171
8.3.1.4 Conversational principles 173
8.3.1.5 Speech acts 177
8.3.1.6 Conversational analysis 178
8.3.2 Interdisciplinary pragmatics or macropragmatics 179
8.3.2.1 Cross-cultural pragmatics 181
8.3.2.2 Interlanguage pragmatics 181
8.3.2.3 Cognitive pragmatics 183
8.3.2.4 Literary pragmatics 183
8.3.2.5 Developmental pragmatics 184
8.3.2.6 Societal pragmatics 185
8.3.3 Topics in Chinese pragmatics 186
8.3.3.1 Pragmatic studies in China 186
8.3.3.2 Events in Chinese pragmatics 186
8.3.3.3 Current studies in Chinese pragmatics 187
8.4 People in pragmatics 188
8.4.1 Stephen C.Levinson 188
8.4.2 Geoffrey Leech 189
8.4.3 Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson 190
8.4.4 Jacob L.Mey 191
8.4.5 Jef Verschueren 192
Exercises 192
Chapter 9 Stylistics 195
9.1 Style and stylistics 195
9.1.1 The study of style 195
9.1.2 What is style? 195
9.1.3 What is stylistics? 197
9.2 General features of literary language 197
9.2.1 Foregrounding 197
9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language 200
9.2.3 The analysis of literary language 203
9.3 The language in poetry 204
9.3.1 Sound patterning 204
9.3.2 Stress and metrical patterning 205
9.3.3 Conventional forms of meter and sound 206
9.3.4 The poetic functions of sound and meter 207
9.3.5 Analysis of poetry 209
9.4 The language in fiction 211
9.4.1 Linguistic styles in fiction 211
9.4.1.1 Preference in diction 211
9.4.1.2 Sentence variety and length 213
9.4.2 Points of view in fiction 216
9.4.3 Speech and thought presentation 218
9.4.4 Prose style 222
9.4.5 How to analyse the language of fiction? 223
Exercises 224
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 225
10.1 First language acquisition 226
10.1.1 Characteristics of first language acquisition 226
10.1.1.1 Universality 226
10.1.1.2 Uniformity 228
10.1.1.3 Other characteristics 229
10.1.2 Accounting for child language acquisition 229
10.1.2.1 A review of environmentalist theories of language acquisition 229
10.1.2.2 The innateness hypothesis 234
10.1.3 Conclusion 237
10.2 Second language acquisition 237
10.2.1 Introduction 237
10.2.2 L1 vs.L2 acquisition 239
10.2.3 Individual learner differences and second language acquisition 239
10.2.3.1 Language learner strategies 240
10.2.3.2 Cognitive style 243
10.2.3.3 Personality 245
10.2.3.4 The"good language learner" 248
10.2.4 Theories in second language acquisition 249
10.2.4.1 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 249
10.2.4.2 The Critical Period Hypothesis 250
10.2.4.3 The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 251
10.2.4.4 The Monitor Theory 252
10.2.4.5 The Pidginization Hypothesis 254
10.2.4.6 The Universal Hypothesis 255
Exercises 256
Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 258
11.1 Necessity of linguistics 258
11.1.1 For teachers 259
11.1.1.1 For teacher development 259
11.1.2 For teaching 261
11.1.2.1 An epistemological prerequisite 261
11.1.2.2 Areas for application 262
11.1.2.3 Reflective teaching and reflective teacher 264
11.2 Linguistic theories and grammar teaching 266
11.2.1 Traditional grammar instruction 267
11.2.2 Structural grammar and the audio-lingual and direct approaches 268
11.2.3 Functional approaches 269
11.2.4 Focus on form 270
11.2.5 Noticing and consciousness raising 271
11.2.6 Interaction for grammar learning 272
11.2.7 Discourse-based approaches to grammar instruction 273
11.3 Cognitive Approaches 276
11.3.1 Skehan's task-based approach 277
11.3.2 Anderson's ACT model 279
11.3.3 Macwhinney's competition model 281
11.4 Syllabus design 283
11.4.1 What is syllabus design? 283
11.4.2 Linguistic theories and various types of syllabuses 284
11.4.2.1 Grammatical syllabuses 285
11.4.2.2 Functional-notional syllabuses 285
11.4.2.3 Procedural and task-based syllabuses 287
11.4.2.4 Communicative syllabus 287
11.5 Conclusion 290
Exercises 291
Chapter 12 Modern Linguistic Schools and Theories 293
12.1 Structuralism 293
12.1.1 Saussuralism 293
12.1.2 The Prague School 295
12.1.2.1 Functional sentence perspective 298
12.1.3 American structuralism 300
12.1.4 Behaviorism in American structuralism 303
12.2 Transformational-generative grammar 304
12.2.1 Noam Chomsky and his theoretic development 304
12.2.1.1 Transformational-generative grammar 306
12.2.1.2 The nature of universal grammar 307
12.2.1.3 Language acquisition device 308
12.3 The Systemic-Functional School 310
12.3.1 The London School 310
12.3.2 Halliday and his theories 311
12.3.2.1 Halliday's systemic grammar 312
12.3.2.2 Halliday's functional grammar 315
12.4 Cognitive linguistics 316
Exercises 324
Appendix Glossary 325