General linguistics：a course bookPDF电子书下载

Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics 1

1.1 What is language? 1

1.2 The design of language 3

1.2.1 Arbitrariness 3

1.2.2 Duality 5

1.3 The functions of language 6

1.4 What is linguistics? 7

1.5 Some basic distinctions in linguistics 8

1.5.1 Langue and parole 8

1.5.2 Competence and performance 9

1.5.3 Synchronic and diachronic studies 11

1.6 Major branches of general linguistics 12

1.6.1 Phonology 13

1.6.2 Syntax 13

1.6.3 Semantics 13

1.6.4 Pragmatics 13

Exercises 14

Chapter 2 Phonology 15

2.1 Phonetics 15

2.1.1 Consonants 16

2.1.1.1 Manners of articulation 17

2.1.1.2 Places of articulation 20

2.1.2 Vowels 22

2.1.2.1 Close,half-close,half-open,open 22

2.1.2.2 Front,central,back 23

2.1.2.3 Rounded and unrounded 24

2.1.2.4 Tense and lax 24

2.1.2.5 Monophthongs and diphthongs 24

2.2 Phonology 25

2.2.1 Phonetics and phonology 26

2.2.2 Some important definitions in phonology 27

2.2.2.1 Phonemes and allophones 27

2.2.2.2 Minimal pairs 29

2.2.2.3 Complementary distribution 29

2.2.2.4 Free variation 30

2.2.2.5 Distinctive features 30

2.2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions 32

2.2.4 Prosodic phonology and suprasegmental phonology 33

2.2.4.1 Stress 34

2.2.4.2 Syllable 36

2.2.4.3 Intonation 38

2.2.5 Functions of intonation 39

Exercises 41

Chapter 3 Morphology 43

3.1 Morpho1ogy 43

3.2 What is a morpheme? 44

3.2.1 Types of morphemes 45

3.2.1.1 Free-bound 46

3.2.1.2 Inflectional-derivational 46

3.2.2 Morpheme and phoneme 47

3.3 Word-formation 48

3.4 Open classes and closed classes 49

3.5 Lexical change 49

3.5.1 Deterioration and elevation 49

3.5.2 Specialization and extension 50

3.5.3 Concretization and metaphorization 51

Exercises 51

Chapter 4 Syntax 53

4.1 Overview 53

4.1.1 The goal of syntactic study 54

4.1.2 Criteria of adequacy 56

4.2 Syntactic categories 57

4.2.1 Lexical vs functional categories 57

4.2.2 Parsing 59

4.2.3 The principle of projection 61

4.3 Syntactic structure 61

4.3.1 The structure of phrases 61

4.3.1.1 Noun phrases 61

4.3.1.2 Prepositional phrases 63

4.3.1.3 Verb phrases 64

4.3.1.4 Other phrases 65

4.3.1.5 Adverbial phrases 65

4.3.2 Generalization on phrase structures:X-bar Theory 66

4.3.3 The Structure of sentences 67

4.4 Structural relations 70

4.4.1 Dominance vs precedence 70

4.4.2 C-command vs government 71

4.4.3 Structural ambiguity 75

4.5 A generative grammar 76

4.6 Transformational rules 77

4.6.1 Inversion in yes-no questions 77

4.6.2 Particle movement 79

4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure 81

4.7 Embedded clauses 84

4.8 Summing up 85

Exercises 85

Chapter 5 Semantics 89

5.1 What is semantics? 89

5.2 Word meaning 90

5.3 Sentence meaning 95

5.4 Seven types of meaning 96

5.4.1 Conceptual meaning 97

5.4.2 Connotative meaning 97

5.4.3 Social meaning 98

5.4.4 Affective meaning 98

5.4.5 Reflected meaning 99

5.4.6 Collocative meaning 100

5.4.7 Thematic meaning 100

5.5 Sense relations 101

5.5.1 Lexical relations 101

5.5.1.1 Homonymy 101

5.5.1.2 Polysemy 102

5.5.1.3 Synonymy 102

5.5.1.4 Opposites(Antonymy) 103

5.5.1.5 Hyponymy 105

5.5.2 Sentence relations 106

5.5.2.1 Entailment 106

5.5.2.2 Presupposition 107

5.5.2.3 Synonymy 108

5.5.2.4 Controdiction 108

5.5.2.5 Tautology 108

5.5.2.6 Inconsistency 108

5.5.2.7 Anomaly 108

5.6 Componential analysis 109

5.7 Extralinguistic context 111

Exercises 113

Chapter 6 Varieties of Language 116

6.1 Definition 116

6.2 Dialect 116

6.2.1 Regional dialect 117

6.2.2 Temporal dialect 118

6.2.3 Social dialect 119

6.2.3.1 Education 120

6.2.3.2 Class 121

6.2.3.3 Sex 121

6.2.3.4 Age 122

6.2.3.5 Ethnic background 123

6.2.4 Idiolect 125

6.2.5 Standard dialect 126

6.3 Registers 127

6.3.1 Field of discourse 128

6.3.2 Tenor of discourse 128

6.3.3 Mode of discourse 129

Exercises 129

Chapter 7 Language and Thought 132

7.1 Introduction:a classic issue 132

7.2 The views of Saussure,Wittgenstein,and Chomsky 134

7.2.1 Saussure 135

7.2.2 Wittgenstein 136

7.2.3 Chomsky 138

7.3 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 140

7.3.1 Linguistic relativity 141

7.3.2 Linguistic determinism 143

7.4 Features of language and thought 148

7.5 Metaphor,iconicity and schema in cognitive processes 151

7.5.1 Metaphorical thinking 152

7.5.2 Iconic thinking 154

7.5.3 Schema 155

7.5.4 Integration of metaphor,iconicity,and schemata 156

Exercises 157

Chapter 8 Pragmatics 159

8.1 What is pragmatics? 159

8.1.1 A new branch of linguistics 159

8.1.2 Study of meaning 160

8.1.3 Semantics,grammar,pragmatics and syntax:Division of work 160

8.1.4 What on earth is pragmatics? 163

8.2 Timeline of pragmatics 167

8.3 Topics in pragmatics 168

8.3.1 General/theoretical/linguistic pragmatics or micropragmatics 168

8.3.1.1 Deixis 169

8.3.1.2 Presupposition 170

8.3.1.3 Conversational implicature 171

8.3.1.4 Conversational principles 173

8.3.1.5 Speech acts 177

8.3.1.6 Conversational analysis 178

8.3.2 Interdisciplinary pragmatics or macropragmatics 179

8.3.2.1 Cross-cultural pragmatics 181

8.3.2.2 Interlanguage pragmatics 181

8.3.2.3 Cognitive pragmatics 183

8.3.2.4 Literary pragmatics 183

8.3.2.5 Developmental pragmatics 184

8.3.2.6 Societal pragmatics 185

8.3.3 Topics in Chinese pragmatics 186

8.3.3.1 Pragmatic studies in China 186

8.3.3.2 Events in Chinese pragmatics 186

8.3.3.3 Current studies in Chinese pragmatics 187

8.4 People in pragmatics 188

8.4.1 Stephen C.Levinson 188

8.4.2 Geoffrey Leech 189

8.4.3 Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson 190

8.4.4 Jacob L.Mey 191

8.4.5 Jef Verschueren 192

Exercises 192

Chapter 9 Stylistics 195

9.1 Style and stylistics 195

9.1.1 The study of style 195

9.1.2 What is style? 195

9.1.3 What is stylistics? 197

9.2 General features of literary language 197

9.2.1 Foregrounding 197

9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language 200

9.2.3 The analysis of literary language 203

9.3 The language in poetry 204

9.3.1 Sound patterning 204

9.3.2 Stress and metrical patterning 205

9.3.3 Conventional forms of meter and sound 206

9.3.4 The poetic functions of sound and meter 207

9.3.5 Analysis of poetry 209

9.4 The language in fiction 211

9.4.1 Linguistic styles in fiction 211

9.4.1.1 Preference in diction 211

9.4.1.2 Sentence variety and length 213

9.4.2 Points of view in fiction 216

9.4.3 Speech and thought presentation 218

9.4.4 Prose style 222

9.4.5 How to analyse the language of fiction? 223

Exercises 224

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 225

10.1 First language acquisition 226

10.1.1 Characteristics of first language acquisition 226

10.1.1.1 Universality 226

10.1.1.2 Uniformity 228

10.1.1.3 Other characteristics 229

10.1.2 Accounting for child language acquisition 229

10.1.2.1 A review of environmentalist theories of language acquisition 229

10.1.2.2 The innateness hypothesis 234

10.1.3 Conclusion 237

10.2 Second language acquisition 237

10.2.1 Introduction 237

10.2.2 L1 vs.L2 acquisition 239

10.2.3 Individual learner differences and second language acquisition 239

10.2.3.1 Language learner strategies 240

10.2.3.2 Cognitive style 243

10.2.3.3 Personality 245

10.2.3.4 The"good language learner" 248

10.2.4 Theories in second language acquisition 249

10.2.4.1 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 249

10.2.4.2 The Critical Period Hypothesis 250

10.2.4.3 The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 251

10.2.4.4 The Monitor Theory 252

10.2.4.5 The Pidginization Hypothesis 254

10.2.4.6 The Universal Hypothesis 255

Exercises 256

Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 258

11.1 Necessity of linguistics 258

11.1.1 For teachers 259

11.1.1.1 For teacher development 259

11.1.2 For teaching 261

11.1.2.1 An epistemological prerequisite 261

11.1.2.2 Areas for application 262

11.1.2.3 Reflective teaching and reflective teacher 264

11.2 Linguistic theories and grammar teaching 266

11.2.1 Traditional grammar instruction 267

11.2.2 Structural grammar and the audio-lingual and direct approaches 268

11.2.3 Functional approaches 269

11.2.4 Focus on form 270

11.2.5 Noticing and consciousness raising 271

11.2.6 Interaction for grammar learning 272

11.2.7 Discourse-based approaches to grammar instruction 273

11.3 Cognitive Approaches 276

11.3.1 Skehan's task-based approach 277

11.3.2 Anderson's ACT model 279

11.3.3 Macwhinney's competition model 281

11.4 Syllabus design 283

11.4.1 What is syllabus design? 283

11.4.2 Linguistic theories and various types of syllabuses 284

11.4.2.1 Grammatical syllabuses 285

11.4.2.2 Functional-notional syllabuses 285

11.4.2.3 Procedural and task-based syllabuses 287

11.4.2.4 Communicative syllabus 287

11.5 Conclusion 290

Exercises 291

Chapter 12 Modern Linguistic Schools and Theories 293

12.1 Structuralism 293

12.1.1 Saussuralism 293

12.1.2 The Prague School 295

12.1.2.1 Functional sentence perspective 298

12.1.3 American structuralism 300

12.1.4 Behaviorism in American structuralism 303

12.2 Transformational-generative grammar 304

12.2.1 Noam Chomsky and his theoretic development 304

12.2.1.1 Transformational-generative grammar 306

12.2.1.2 The nature of universal grammar 307

12.2.1.3 Language acquisition device 308

12.3 The Systemic-Functional School 310

12.3.1 The London School 310

12.3.2 Halliday and his theories 311

12.3.2.1 Halliday's systemic grammar 312

12.3.2.2 Halliday's functional grammar 315

12.4 Cognitive linguistics 316

Exercises 324

Appendix Glossary 325