1 INTRODUCTION，MEASUREMENT，ESTIMATING 1
1-1 The Nature of Science 1
1-2 Models，Theories，and Laws 3
1-3 Measurement and Uncertainty；Significant Figures 3
1-4 Units，Standards，and the SI System 5
1-5 Converting Units 7
1-6 Order of Magnitude：Rapid Estimating 8
1-7 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis 11
SUMMARY 12
QUESTIONS 12
PROBLEMS 13
GENERAL PROBLEMS 14
2 DESCRIBING MOTION：KINEMA-TICS IN ONE DIMENSION 16
2-1 Reference Frames and Displacement 17
2-2 Average Velocity 18
2-3 Instantaneous Velocity 19
2-4 Acceleration 22
2-5 Motion at Constant Acceleration 25
2-6 Solving Problems 27
2-7 Falling Objects 30
2-8 Use of Calculus；Variable Acceleration 34
SUMMARY 36
QUESTIONS 36
PROBLEMS 37
GENERAL PROBLEMS 41
3 KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS；VECTORS 44
3-1 Vectors and Scalars 44
3-2 Addition of Vectors—Graphical Methods 45
3-3 Subtraction of Vectors，and Multiplication of a Vector by a Sealar 46
3-4 Adding Vectors by Components 47
3-5 Unit Vectors 51
3-6 Vector Kinematics 52
3-7 Projectile Motion 54
3-8 Solving Problems involving Projectile Motion 56
3-9 Uniform Circular Motion 62
3-10 Relative Velocity 64
SUMMARY 67
QUESTIONS 68
PROBLEMS 69
GENERAL PROBLEMS 74
4 DYNAMICS：NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION 77
4-1 Force 77
4-2 Newton's First Law of Motion 78
4-3 Mass 79
4-4 Newton's Second Law of Motion 79
4-5 Newton's Third Law of Motion 82
4-6 Weight—the Force of Gravity；and the Normal Force 85
4-7 Solving Problems with Newton's Laws：Free-Body Diagrams 88
4-8 Problem Solving—A General Approach 94
SUMMARY 95
QUESTIONS 96
PROBLEMS 97
GENERAL PROBLEMS 102
5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 105
5-1 Applications of Newton's Laws Involving Friction 105
5-2 Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion 113
5-3 Highway Curves，Banked and Unbanked 116
5-4 Nonumform Circular Motion 119
5-5 Velocity-Dependent Forces；Terminal Velocity 120
SUMMARY 122
QUESTIONS 122
PROBLEMS 123
GENERAL PROBLEMS 128
6 GRAVITATION AND NEWTON'S SYNTHESIS 132
6-1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation 132
6-2 Satellites and“Weightlessness” 136
6-3 Kepler's Laws and Newton's Synthesis 140
6-4 Gravitational Field 143
6-5 Types of Forces in Nature 144
6-6 Gravitational Versus Inertial Mass；the Principle of Equivalence 144
6-7 Gravitation as Curvature of Space；Black Holes 145
QUESTIONS 146
7 WORK AND ENERGY 147
7-1 Work Done by a Constant Force 147
7-2 Scalar Product of Two Vectors 151
7-3 Work Done by a Varying Force 152
7-4 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Principle 156
7-5 Kinetic Energy at Very High Speed 160
SUMMARY 161
QUESTIONS 161
PROBLEMS 162
GENERAL PROBLEMS 166
8 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 168
8-1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 168
8-2 Potential Energy 170
8-3 Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation 174
8-4 Problem Solving Using Conserva-tion of Mechanical Energy 175
8-5 The Law of Conservation of Energy 181
8-6 Energy Conservation with Dissipa-tive Forces：Solving Problems 182
8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and Escape Velocity 184
8-8 Power 186
8-9 Potential Energy Diagrams；Stable and Unstable Equilibrium 189
SUMMARY 190
QUESTIONS 191
PROBLEMS 192
GENERAL PROBLEMS 197
9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS 200
9-1 Momentum and Its Relation to Force 200
9-2 Conservation of Momentum 202
9-3 Collisions and Impulse 205
9-4 Conservation of Energy and Momentum in Collisions 208
9-5 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 208
9-6 Inelastic Collisions 211
9-7 Collisions in Two or Three Dimensions 213
9-8 Center of Mass（CM） 214
9-9 Center of Mass and Translational Motion 219
9-10 Systems of Variable Mass；Rocket Propulsion 221
SUMMARY 223
QUESTIONS 224
PROBLEMS 225
GENERAL PROBLEMS 231
10 ROTATIONAL MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS 234
10-1 Angular Quantities 235
10-2 Kinematic Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Rotational Motion 238
10-3 Rolling Motion（without slipping） 239
10-4 Vector Nature of Angular Quantities 241
10-5 Torque 241
10-6 Rotational Dynamics；Torque and Rotational Inertia 243
10-7 Solving Problems in Rotational Dynamics 245
10-8 Determining Moments of Inertia 248
10-9 Angular Momentum and Its Conservation 251
10-10 Rotational Kinetic Energy 254
10-11 Rotational Plus Translational Motion；Rolling 256
10-12 Why Does a Rolling Sphere Slow Down？ 262
SUMMARY 263
QUESTIONS 264
PROBLEMS 265
GENERAL PROBLEMS 271
11 GENERAL ROTATION 275
11-1 Vector Cross Product 275
11-2 The Torque Vector 276
11-3 Angular Momentum of a Particle 277
11-4 Angular Momentum and Torque for a System of Particles；General Motion 278
11-5 Angular Momentum and Torque for a Rigid Body 280
11-6 Rotational Imbalance 283
11-7 Conservation of Angular Momentum 284
11-8 The Spinning Top 286
11-9 Rotating Frames of Reference；Inertial Forces 287
11-10 The Coriolis Effect 288
SUMMARY 290
QUESTIONS 291
PROBLEMS 291
GENERAL PROBLEMS 295
12 OSCILATIONS 297
12-1 Oscillations of a Spring 297
12-2 Simple Harmonic Motion 299
12-3 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 304
12-4 Simple Harmonic Motion Related to Uniform Circular Motion 306
12-5 The Simple Pendulum 307
12-6 The Physical Pendulum and the Torsion Pendulum 308
12-7 Damped Harmonic Motion 310
12-8 Forced Vibrations；Resonance 313
SUMMARY 315
QUESTIONS 316
PROBLEMS 317
GENERAL PROBLEMS 322
13 WAVE MOTION 325
13-1 Characteristics of Wave Motion 326
13-2 Wave Types 327
13-3 Energy Transported by Waves 331
13-4 Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave 332
13-5 The Wave Equation 335
13-6 The Principle of Superposition 337
13-7 Reflection and Transmission 338
13-8 Intefference 339
13-9 Standing Waves；Resonance 341
13-10 Refraction 344
13-11 Diffraction 345
SUMMARY 346
QUESTIONS 347
PROBLEMS 347
GENERAL PROBLEMS 351
14 SOUND 354
14-1 Characteristics of Sound 354
14-2 Intensity of Sound；Decibels 356
14-3 Interference of Sound Waves；Beats 359
14-4 Doppler Effect 361
14-5 Shock Wayes and the Sonic Boom 365
14-6 Applications；Sonar，Ultrasound and Ultrasound Imaging 366
SUMMARY 367
QUESTIONS 368
PROBLEMS 368
GENERAL PROBLEMS 371
15 TEMPERATURE AND THE IDEAL GAS LAW 373
15-1 Atomic Theory of Matter 374
15-2 Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 375
15-3 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature 375
15-4 The Ideal Gas Law 377
15-5 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law 378
15-6 Ideal Gas Law inTerms of Molecules：Avogadro's Number 379
15-7 Ideal Gas Temperature Scale—a Standard 380
SUMMARY 381
QUESTIONS 382
PROBLEMS 382
GENERAL PROBLEMS 383
16 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 384
16-1 The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecul-ar Interpretation of Temperature 384
16-2 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 388
16-3 Real Gases and Changes of Phase 390
16-4 Vapor Pressure and Humidity 392
16-5 Van der Waals Equation of State 394
16-6 Mean Free Path 396
16-7 Diffusion 397
SUMMARY 398
QUESTIONS 399
PROBLEMS 400
GENERAL PROBLEMS 402
17 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 404
17-1 Heat as Energy Transfer 404
17-2 Internal Energy 406
17-3 Specific Heat 407
17-4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 407
17-5 Applying the First Law of Thermodvnamics：Calculating the Work 409
17-6 Molar Specific Heats for Gases，and the Equipartition of Energy 412
17-7 Adiabatic Expansion of a Gas 416
17-8 Heat Transfer：Conduction，Convection，Radiation 417
SUMMARY 422
QUESTIONS 423
PROBLEMS 424
GENERAL PROBLEMS 427
18 SECOND LAW OF THERMOD-YNAMICS 429
18-1 The Second Law ofThermodynamics—Introduction 429
18-2 Heat Engines 430
18-3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes；the Carnot Engine 433
18-4 Refrigerators，Air Conditioners，and Heat Pumps 438
18-5 Entropy 440
18-6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 441
18-7 Order to Disorder 445
18-8 Energy Availability；Heat Death 446
18-9 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law 446
18-10 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale；Absolute Zero，and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 448
SUMMARY 449
QUESTIONS 450
PROBLEMS 451
GENERAL PROBLEMS 454
19 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD 456
19-1 Static Electricity；Electric Charge and Its Conservation 456
19-2 Electric Charge in the Atom 457
19-3 Insulators and Conductors 458
19-4 Induced Charge；the Electroscope 459
19-5 Coulomb's Law 460
19-6 The Electric Field 464
19-7 Electric Field Calculations for Continuous Charge Distributions 468
19-8 Field Lines 471
19-9 Electric Fields and Conductors 473
19-10 Motion of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field 474
19-11 Electric Dipoles 475
SUMMARY 477
QUESTIONS 478
PROBLEMS 479
GENERAL PROBLEMS 483
20 GAUSS'S LAW 486
20-1 Electric Flux 487
20-2 Gauss's Law 489
20-3 Applications of Gauss's Law 491
20-4 Experimental Basis of Gauss's and Coulomb's Law 496
SUMMARY 496
QUESTIONS 497
PROBLEMS 498
GENERAL PROBLEMS 500
21 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 502
21-1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 502
21-2 Relation Between Electric Potential and Electric Field 505
21-3 Electric Potential Due to Point Charges 507
21-4 Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution 510
21-5 Equipotential Surfaces 511
21-6 Electric Dipoles 512
21-7 E Determined from V 513
21-8 Electrostatic Potential Energy；the Electron Volt 515
21-9 Cathode Ray Tube：TV and Computer Monitors，Oscilloscope 516
SUMMARY 518
QUESTIONS 518
PROBLEMS 519
GENERAL PROBLEMS 522
22 CAPACITANCE，DIELECTRICS，ELECTRIC ENERGY STORAGE 525
22-1 Capacitors 525
22-2 Determination of Capacitance 526
22-3 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 529
22-4 Electric Energy Storage 532
22-5 Dielectrics 533
22-6 Molecular Description of Dielectrics 536
SUMMARY 539
QUESTIONS 539
PROBLEMS 540
GENERAL PROBLEMS 544
23 ELECTRIC CURRENTS AND RESISTANCE 547
23-1 The Electric Battery 548
23-2 Electric Current 549
23-3 Ohm's Law：Resistance and Resistors 550
23-4 Resistivity 553
23-5 Electric Power 554
23-6 Alternating Current 555
23-7 Microscopic View of Electric Current：Current Density and Drift Velocity 556
23-8 Superconductivity 559
SUMMARY 560
QUESTIONS 561
PROBLEMS 562
GENERAL PROBLEMS 564
24 DC CIRCUITS 565
24-1 EMF and Terminal Voltage 566
24-2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 567
24-3 Kirchhoff's Rules 569
24-4 Circuits Containing Resistor and Capacitor（RC Circuits） 572
SUMMARY 576
QUESTIONS 576
PROBLEMS 577
GENERAL PROBLEMS 579
25 MAGNETISM 580
25-1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 580
25-2 Electric Currents Produce Magnetism 582
25-3 Force on an Electric Current in a MagneticField；DefinitionofB 583
25-4 Force on an Electric Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field 586
25-5 Torque on a Current Loop；Magnetic Dipole Moment 589
25-6 Applications：Galvanometers，Motors，Loudspeakers 591
25-7 Discovery and Properties of the Electron 592
25-8 The Hall Effect 594
25-9 Mass Spectrometer 595
SUMMARY 596
QUESTIONS 597
PROBLEMS 598
GENERAL PROBLEMS 601
26 SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD 604
26-1 Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire 604
26-2 Force between Two Parallel Wires 605
26-3 Operational Definitions of the Ampere and the Coulomb 607
26-4 Ampère's Law 607
26-5 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid and a Toroid 611
26-6 Biot-Savart Law 613
26-7 Magnetic Materials—Ferromagnetism 616
26-8 Electromagnets and Solenoids 617
26-9 Magnetic Fields in Magnetic Materials；Hysteresis 618
26-10 Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism 620
SUMMARY 621
QUESTIONS 621
PROBLEMS 622
GENERAL PROBLEMS 626
27 ELECTROMAGNETIC lNDUCTION AND FARADAY'S LAW 629
27-1 Induced EMF 629
27-2 Faraday's Law of Induction；Lenz's Law 630
27-3 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor 634
27-4 A Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Field 635
27-5 Applications of Induction：Sound Systems，Computer Memory，the Seismograph 637
SUMMARY 638
QUESTIONS 638
PROBLEMS 639
GENERAL PROBLEMS 642
28 INDUCTANCE；AND ELECTRO-MAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS 643
28-1 Mutual Inductance 643
28-2 Self-Inductance 645
28-3 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 647
28-4 LR Circuits 648
28-5 LC Circuits and Electromagnetic Oscillations 650
28-6 LC Oscillations with Resistance（LRC Circuit） 653
SUMMARY 654
QUESTIONS 655
PROBLEMS 656
GENERAL PROBLEMS 658
29 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 660
29-1 Changing Electric Fields Produce Magnetic Fields；Ampère's Law and Displacement Current 661
29-2 Gauss'S Law for Magnetism 664
29-3 Maxwell's Equations 664
29-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves 665
29-5 Electromagnetic Waayes，and Their Speed，from Maxwell's Equations 667
29-6 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 670
29-7 Energy in EM Waves；the Poynting Vector 672
29-8 Radiation Pressure 674
SUMMARY 676
QUESTIONS 676
PROBLEMS 677
GENERAL PROBLEMS 678
30 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT；INTERFERENCE 680
30-1 Huygens'Principle and Diffraction 680
30-2 Huygens'Principle and the Law of Refraction 681
30-3 Interference—Young's Double-Slit Experiment 683
30-4 Coherence 687
30-5 Intensity in the Double-Slit Interference Pattern 687
30-6 Interference in Thin Films 691
30-7 Michelson Interferometer 695
30-8 Luminous Intensity 695
SUMMARY 696
QUESTIONS 697
PROBLEMS 698
GENERAL PROBLEMS 700
31 DIFFRACTION AND POLARIZATION 702
31-1 Diffraction by a Single Slit 703
31-2 Intensity in Single-Slit Dfffraction Pattern 705
31-3 Diffraction in the Double-Slit Experiment 708
31-4 Limits of Resolution；Circular Apertures 709
31-5 Resolution of Telescopes and Microscopes；the λ Linit 710
31-6 Resolution of the Human Eye and Useful Magnification 713
31-7 Diffraction Grating 713
31-8 The Spectrometer and Spectroscopy 715
31-9 Peak Widths and Resolving Power for a Diffraction Grating 716
31-10 X-Rays and X-Ray Diffraction 718
31-11 Polarization 720
31-12 Scattering of Light by the Atmosphere 724
SUMMARY 725
QUESTIONS 726
PROBLEMS 726
GENERAL PROBLEMS 729
32 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 731
32-1 Galilean-Newtonian Relativity 732
32-2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 734
32-3 Postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity 736
32-4 Simultaneity 737
32-5 Time Dilation and the Twin Paradox 739
32-6 Length Contraction 743
32-7 Four-Dimensional Space-Time 745
32-8 Galflean and Lorentz Transformations 746
32-9 Relativistic Momentum and Mass 749
32-10 The Ultimate Speed 751
32-11 Energy and Mass；E＝mc2 751
32-12 Doppler Shift for Light 754
32-13 The Impact of Special Relativity 756
SUMMARY 756
QUESTIONS 757
PROBLEMS 758
GENERAL PROBLEMS 761
33 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY AND MODELS OF THE ATOM 763
33-1 Planck's Quantum Hypothesis 763
33-2 Photon Theory of Light and the Photoelectric Effect 765
33-3 Photons and the Compton Effect 769
33-4 Photon Interactions；Pair Production 771
33-5 Wave-Particle Duality；the Principle of Complementarity 772
33-6 Wave Nature of Matter 772
33-7 Electron Microscopes 774
33-8 Early Models of the Atom 775
33-9 Atomic Spectra：Key to the Structure of the Atom 776
33-10 The Bohr Model 778
33-11 de Broglie's HypothesisApplied to Atoms 784
SUMMARY 785
QUESTIONS 786
PROBLEMS 787
GENERAL PROBLEMS 790
34 QUANTUM MECHANICS 792
34-1 Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory 793
34-2 The Wave Function and Its Interpretation；the Double-Slit Experiment 793
34-3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 795
34-4 Philosophic Implications；Probablity Versus Determinism 798
34-5 The Schr？dinger Equation in One Dimension—Time-Independent Form 799
34-6 Time-Dependent Schr？dinger Equatioff 801
34-7 Free Particles；Plane Wayes and Wave Packets 803
34-8 Particle in an Infinitely Deep Squ-are Well Potential （a Rigid Box） 804
34-9 Finite Potential Well 807
34-10 Tunneling through a Barrier 809
SUMMARY 812
QUESTIONS 813
PROBLEMS 814
GENERAL PROBLEMS 816
35 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF ATOMS 818
35-1 Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms 818
35-2 Hydrogen Atom：Schr？dinger Equation and Quantum Numbers 819
35-3 Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions 822
35-4 Complex Atoms；the Exclusion Principle 826
35-5 The Periodic Table of Elements 827
35-6 X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number 829
35-7 Magnetic Dipole Moments；Total Angular Momentum 831
35-8 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 834
35-9 Lasers 835
35-10 Holography 838
SUMMARY 839
QUESTIONS 840
PROBLEMS 841
GENERAL PROBLEMS 844
36 MOLECULES AND SOLIDS 846
36-1 Bonding in Molecules 846
36-2 Potential-Energy Diagrams for Molecules 849
36-3 Weak（van der Waals）Bonds 852
36-4 Molecular Spectra 853
36-5 Bonding in Solids 859
36-6 Free-Electron Theory of Metals 860
36-7 Band Theory of Solids 864
36-8 Semiconductors and Doping 866
36-9 Semiconductor Diodes 867
36-10 Transistors and Integrated Circuits 869
SUMMARY 870
QUESTIONS 871
PROBLEMS 872
GENERAL PROBLEMS 875
37 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY 877
37-1 Structure and Properties of the Nucleus 877
37-2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces 880
37-3 Radioactivity 882
37-4 Alpha Decay 883
37-5 Beta Decay 885
37-6 Gamma Decay 887
37-7 Conservation of Nucleon Number and Other Conservation Laws 888
37-8 Half-Life and Rate of Decay 888
37-9 Decay Series 891
37-10 Radioactive Dating 893
37-11 Detection of Radiation 894
SUMMARY 895
QUESTIONS 896
PROBLEMS 897
38 NUCLEAR ENERGY 900
38-1 Nuclear Reactions and the Transmutation of Elements 900
38-2 Cross Section 903
38-3 Nuclear Fission；Nuclear Reactors 904
38-4 Fusion 909
SUMMARY 913
QUESTIONS 914
PROBLEMS 915
39 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 917
39-1 High-Energy Particles 918
39-2 Particle Accelerators and Detectors 918
39-3 Beginnings of Elementary Particle Physics—Particle Exchange 923
39-4 Particles and Antiparticles 926
39-5 Particle Interactions and Conservation Laws 926
39-6 Particle Classification 928
39-7 Particle Stability and Resonances 928
39-8 Strange Particles 930
39-9 Quarks 931
39-10 The“Standard Model”：Quantum Chromodynamics （QCD）and the Electroweak Theory 934
39-11 Grand Unified Theories 935
QUESTIONS 937
40 ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY 939
40-1 Stars and Galaxies 940
40-2 Stellar Evolution；the Birth and Death of Stars 944
40-3 General Relativity：Gravity and the Curvature of Space 949
40-4 The Expanding Universe 954
40-5 The Big Bang and the Cosmic Microwave B ackground 956
40-6 The Standard Cosmological Model：The Early History of the Universe 958
40-7 The Future of the Universe？ 961
QUESTIONS 964
APPENDICES 965
A MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 967
A-1 Quadratic Formula 967
A-2 Binomial Expansion 967
A-3 Other Expansions 967
A-4 Areas and Volumes 968
A-5 Plane Geometry 968
A-6 Tirigonometric Functions and Identities 968
A-7 Logarithms 969
A-8 Vectors 970
B DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS 971
B-1 Derivatives：General Rules 971
B-2 Derivatives：Particular Functions 971
B-3 Indefinite Integrals：General Rules 971
B-4 Indefinite Integrals：Particular Functions 972
B-5 A few Definite Integrals 972
C GRAVITATIONAL FORCE DUETO A SPHERICAL MASS DISTRIBUTION 973
ANSWERS TO PARTS OF PROBLEMS 976