PART ONE Contexts for Teaching and Learning the Language Arts 3
CHAPTER 1 Language Arts：Learning and Teaching 3
Changing Views 7
Instructional Changes 7
Instructional Challenges 10
Learning and Teaching as Processes 14
An Active Process 14
A Social Process 16
An Emotional Process 18
A Cognitive Process 24
Strategies for Learning and Teaching 27
Learner Strategies 27
Instructional Strategies 29
Involving Families and Conmunities 35
Summary 36
Activities 36
Further Reading 37
References 38
CHAPTER 2 Organizing and Managing the Language Arts Program 41
Addressing Organization and Management Issues across Grade Levels 43
The Primary Years 43
The Intermediate Years 44
The Middle School Years 47
Establishing a Supportive Classroom Environment 51
The Social and Emotional Environment 51
The Intellectual Environment 51
The Physical Environment 51
Providing a Balanced Language Arts Program 53
Key Experiences for Language Arts Learning and Teaching 56
Managing Time 58
Accommodating Learner Variability 60
Managing Materials in the Language Arts Classroom 63
Organizing for Thematic Instruction 65
Summary 71
Activities 72
Further Reading 72
References 72
CHAPTER 3 The Role of Literature in Language Arts Teaching and Learning 75
The Benefits of a Literature-Based Language Arts Curriculum 77
Building a Literature Collection 80
Selecting Children's Books 83
Evaluating Children's Books 87
Organizing the Classroom Library 89
Structuring a Language Arts Program 91
Reading Aloud 93
Guided Reading 97
Independent Reading 98
Shared Reading 99
Literary Study 101
Summary 109
Activities 110
Further Reading 110
References 111
Children's Literature References 111
PART TWO Language Arts Processes 115
CHAPTER 4 Oral Language：Early and Later Development 115
Speaking and Listening：Separate Areas of Leaming and Teaching 118
Listening：A Special Focus 123
Oral Language Development during the Early Years 123
The Context 123
Some Descriptions of Oral Language Development 125
Oral Language-Learning Strategies 126
Written Language-Learning Strategies 128
Early Language Development in School Settings 130
Oral Language Development during the Elementary School Years and Beyond 131
Syntactic and Semantic Development 131
Pragmatic Development 133
Building on Children's Language Competence 134
Developing Vocabulary 137
Learning about Language 139
Developing Fluency 140
Oral Language Assessment 142
Language Variation across Families and Communities 142
Language Diversity in the Classroom 143
Summary 154
Activities 155
Further Reading 156
References 156
Children's Literature References 158
CHAPTER 5 Oral Language：Supporting Relationships among Talk,Listening,Reading,Writing,and Viewing in the Classroom 159
Oral Language in the Classroom 162
Discussion 165
Turn-Taking Patterns 166
Positive and Negative Evaluations 167
Information-Seeking Questions 168
Implications for Conducting Discussions 169
Oral Presentations,Drama,Choral Reading,Storytelling 175
Small-Group Literature Discussions 179
Conversations That Make Connections 180
Conversations That Focus on How Texts Work 182
Organization and Assessment of Literature-Discussion Groups 183
Talk That Supports Writing 184
Listening 185
Conferences 188
Teacher-Student Conferences 189
Student-Student Conferences 191
Assessment Conferences 192
Summary 193
Activities 193
Further Reading 194
References 195
Children's Literature References 196
CHAPTER 6 Reading：The Emergence of Literacy in the Early Years 197
Current Perspectives on Early Literacy 201
An Emergent Literacy Perspective 201
Contrasting Perspectives on Early Literacy 204
What Young Children Need to Learn about Written Language 205
Functions of Written Language 206
Conventions and Units of Written Language 209
Alphabetic/Symbolic Principles 213
Structural Principles 216
Differences between Oral and Written Language 218
How Young Children Learn about Written Language 219
Child Strategies for Literacy Learning 220
Adult Suppoort for Young Children's Literacy Learning 228
Supporting Young Children's Literacy Development in the Classroom 231
Creating a Print-Rich Environment 231
Using Literature 232
Language Charts 234
Developing Skills and Fostering Continuity 234
Summary 239
Activities 242
Further Reading 242
References 242
CHAPTER 7 Reading：Responding to and Learning from Texts through the Grades 245
Response to Literature 248
Response and Reader's Stance 251
Developing Possibilities for Response to Literature 252
Structuring Opportunities for Response 252
Structuring Activities for Response 260
Developing Literary Understanding 272
Genre Study 272
Balancing the Literacy Program 274
Developing Comprehension 274
Summary 278
Activities 278
Further Reading 279
References 279
Children's Literature References 280
CHAPTER 8 Writing：Launching Children into Writing 281
A Literature-Rich Environment 284
Meaningful Contexts for Language Use 286
How Children Develop as Writers 288
Language Diversity and Composition Instruction 294
The Writing Classroom 297
Arranging the Classroom 298
Gathering Materials 298
The Workshop in Action 303
The Writing Cycle 307
Selecting Topics 308
Generating Ideas 310
Putting Words on Paper 310
Revising 314
Editing 316
Publishing 317
Writing Conferences 319
Summary 320
Activities 321
Further Reading 321
References 322
CHAPTER 9 Writing：Writing across the Genres 323
Literary Experience,Research,and Writing 326
Developing Nonfiction Writers：Trade Books 328
Becoming Science Writers：Observation,Recording,and Writing 331
Building on Interest：Research,Writing,and Oral Presentations 335
Researching,Writing,and Reporting 339
Turning Fact into Fiction：Writing Historical Fiction 346
One Young Writers Story："Gettysburg Ghost" 351
Writing Poetry 353
Summary 360
Activities 361
Further Reading 361
References 362
Children's Literature References 362
PART THREE Links and Supports for Language Arts Learning and Teaching 367
CHAPTER 10 Word Study,Vocabulary,and Spelling Supports for Literacy 367
Word Study 369
Learning to Read Words 369
Guidelines for Word Study 371
Strategies for Word Study 373
Vocabulary Development 379
Importance of Building Rich Vocabularies 379
Spelling 387
Spelling Development 390
The Spelling Program 392
Strategies That Support Spelling Development 398
Summary 405
Activities 406
Further Reading 406
References 407
CHAPTER 11 Written Language Conventions：Grammar,Punctuation,and Handwriting 409
Grammar 411
Grammar and Usage 412
Strategies for Instruction in Grammar and Usage 414
Punctuation 418
Supporting the Development of Punctuation and Capitalization Skills 418
Assessing Sentence Structure and Mechanics 424
Proofreading and Editing 425
Assessing Grammar,Usage,and Punctuation 428
Handwriting 431
Overview of Handwriting Development 431
Strategies for Teaching Handwriting 432
Helping Students with Special Needs 435
Assessing Handwriting 435
Summary 436
Activities 437
Further Reading 438
References 438
Children's Literature References 438
CHAPTER 12 Linking Assessment and Instruction 439
Key Issues and Types of Assessments 441
Strategies for Classroom Assessment 444
Observing Language Learners 444
Making Use of Portfolios 472
Structured Performance Assessment 486
Summary 486
Activities 487
Further Reading 487
References 488
Children's Literature References 489
CHAPTER 13 Language Arts Learning and Teaching across the Curriculum 491
Inquiry as a Way of Knowing 493
Planning an Inquiry-Based Curriculum 494
Guidelines for Planning 494
The Guidelines in Action 496
Bringing Language and Literacy Together through Inquiry 499
Talking to Learn 499
Listening to Learn 500
Reading to Learn 502
Writing to Learn 504
Viewing to Learn 507
Teaching as Professional Inquiry and Change 508
Teachers as Learners in the Primary Grades 508
Teachers as Learners in the Intermediate Grades 513
Teachers as Learners in the Upper Grades 523
Summary 529
Activities 530
Further Reading 530
References 531
Children's Literature References 532
Teacher's Choices in Children's Literature 534
Name＆Title Index 539
Subject Index 543