Introduction 1
Part 1 Testing as Validity 3
1 Language Testing Past and Present 5
1.1 The Cambridge Proficiency Examination 1913-1945:'The Garden of Eden','the pre-scientific era' 5
1.2 Developments in the 1960s:the move towards a language-based examination 7
1.3 The 1975 and 1984 revisions:'The Promised Land'? 8
2 The Nature of Test Validity 11
3 Before the Test Event:A Priori Validity Evidence 17
3.1 Theory-based validity 17
3.2 Context validity 19
4 After the Test Event:A Posteriori Validity Evidence 22
4.1 Scoring validity 22
4.2 Criterion-related validity 35
4.3 Consequential validity 37
Part 2 New Frameworks for Developing and Validating Tests of Reading,Listening,Speaking and Writing 41
Introduction 43
5 Test Takers 51
5.1 Physical/physiological characteristics:making accommodations 52
5.2 Psychological characteristics:affective schemata 53
5.3 Experiential characteristics:familiarity 54
6 Context Validity in Action 56
6.1 Task setting 57
6.2 Task demands 68
6.3 Setting and test administration 82
7 Theory-based Validity in Action 85
7.1 Reading 87
7.2 Listening 95
7.3 Speaking 102
7.4 Writing 108
8 Response Formats 119
8.1 Techniques for testing reading comprehension 119
8.2 Techniques for testing listening comprehension 132
8.3 Techniques for testing speaking 143
8.4 Techniques for testing written production 161
9 Scoring Validity in Action 177
9.1 Scoring written production 179
9.2 Scoring speaking tests 191
9.3 Internal reliability of receptive tests 201
9.4 Scores,grading and post-exam validation procedures 205
10 External Validities in Action 207
10.1 Criterion-related validity 207
10.2 Consequential validity 210
Part 3 Generating Validity Evidence 217
Introduction 219
11 Research Methodologies for Exploring the Validity of a Test 221
11.1 An introductory note on research 221
11.2 A priori validation:investigating the specification of the construct and the operationalization of the test 222
11.3 Establishing context validity 224
11.4 Establishing theory-based validity evidence 233
11.5 Establishing scoring validity evidence 247
11.6 Establishing evidence on a posteriori validities 259
Part 4 Further Resources in Language Testing 271
12 Key Sources 273
12.1 Books 273
12.2 Journals 274
12.3 Professional associations 275
12.4 Principal testing conferences 276
12.5 Email lists and bulletin boards 277
12.6 Internet sites 277
12.7 Databases 280
12.8 Statistical packages 280
Postscript 283
References 285
Index 299