1 Introduction 1
1-1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 2
Quantitative Environmental Science 2
Natural Science 2
Environmental Science 2
1-2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING? 3
1-3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3
Engineering 3
Environmental Engineering 3
1-4 HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS WORK TOGETHER 4
A Short Outline of This Book 5
Where Do We Start? 5
1-5 INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE 5
1-6 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 6
Systems as Such 6
Le Système International d'Unités 6
Water Resource Management System 7
Solid Waste Management 11
Air Resource Management System 11
Multimedia Systems 13
Preface 13
Sustainability 13
1-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 13
Water Quality Management 14
Wildlife and Habitat Protection 14
Acknowledgments 14
Environmental Policy 14
About the Authors 15
About the Cover Artist 16
Air Quality Management 18
Noise Pollution Control 21
Solid Waste Management 22
Hazardous Waste Management 23
Atomic Energy and Radiation Management 24
1-8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 25
Case 2:You Can't Do Everything At Once 26
Case 1:To Add or Not to Add 26
Discussion Questions 27
Chapter Review 27
References 29
Additional Reading 29
2 Chemistry 31
Atoms,Elements,and the Periodic Table 32
2-2 BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 32
2-1 INTRODUCTION 32
Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces 33
The Mole,Molar Units,and Activity Units 35
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 36
Chemical Equilibrium 43
Reaction Kinetics 55
2-3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 59
Alkanes,Alkenes,and Alkynes 60
Aryl(Aromatic)Compounds 61
Physical Properties of Water 62
2-4 WATER CHEMISTRY 62
Functional Groups and Classes of Compounds 62
States of Solution Impurities 63
Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions or Suspensions 64
Buffers 67
2-5 SOIL CHEMISTRY 73
2-6 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 74
Fundamentals of Gases 76
Chapter Review 78
Problems 79
Additional Reading 84
Discussion Questions 84
Reference 85
3 Materials and Energy Balances 87
Fundamentals 88
3-3 MATERIALS BALANCES 88
3-1 INTRODUCTION 88
3-2 UNIFYING THEORIES 88
Conservation of Matter 88
Conservation of Energy 88
Conservation of Matter and Energy 88
Time as a Factor 90
More Complex Systems 91
Efficiency 93
The State of Mixing 97
Including Reactions 99
Reactors 103
Reactor Analysis 104
Fundamentals 112
First Law of Thermodynamics 112
3-4 ENERGY BALANCES 112
Second Law of Thermodynamics 120
Chapter Review 122
Problems 123
References 127
Additional Reading 127
Discussion Questions 127
4 Ecosystems 129
4-2 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS 130
4-1 INTRODUCTION 130
4-3 ENERGY AND MASS FLOW 131
Bioaccumulation 136
Carbon Cycle 138
4-4 NUTRIENT CYCLES 138
Nitrogen Cycle 140
Phosphorus Cycle 141
Sulfur Cycle 143
4-5 POPULATION DYNAMICS 144
Bacterial Population Growth 145
Animal Population Dynamics 148
Human Population Dynamics 152
4-6 LAKES:AN EXAMPLE OF MASS AND ENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM 155
Stratification and Turnover in Deep Lakes 156
Biological Zones 158
Lake Productivity 159
Eutrophication 162
Chapter Review 164
4-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO PROTECT ECOSYSTEMS 164
Problems 165
Additional Reading 167
Discussion Questions 167
References 168
5 Risk Perception,Assessment,and Management 169
5-2 RISK PERCEPTION 170
5-1 INTRODUCTION 170
Data Collection and Evaluation 173
5-3 RISK ASSESSMENT 173
Toxicity Assessment 174
Exposure Assessment 179
Risk Characterization 184
5-4 RISK MANAGEMENT 185
Problems 186
Chapter Review 186
Discussion Questions 187
References 188
Additional Reading 188
6 Hydrology 189
The Hydrological Cycle 190
6-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY 190
Precipitation 198
6-2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,EVAPORATION,INFILTRATION,ANDSTREAMFLOW 198
Evaporation 200
Infiltration 203
Streamflow 206
6-3 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 208
Aquifers 209
6-4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 213
6-5 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER AS A WATER SUPPLY 217
Chapter Review 218
Problems 219
Additional Reading 220
Discussion Questions 220
7 Geological and Soil Resources 221
7-2 THE ROCK CYCLE 222
7-1 INTRODUCTION 222
Precipitation 223
Sedimentary Processes 223
7-3 MINERAL CONCENTRATION 223
Igneous Activity 223
Weathering 223
Reserves 224
7-4 ROCK AND MINERAL RESOURCES 224
Environmental Impacts 225
Resource Conservation 227
7-5 ENERGY RESOURCES 229
Petroleum Formation 230
Coal Formation 230
Fossil Fuel Reserves 231
Nuclear Energy 232
Environmental Impacts 233
Alternative Energy Sources 236
Terrain Effects 236
Energy Conservation 239
Soil Components 242
Weathering 242
7-6 SOIL FORMATION AND PROPERTIES 242
Soil Properties 247
Plant Production 251
Energy Storage 251
7-7 SOIL RESOURCES 251
Nutrient Cycling 253
7-8 PARAMETERS OF SUSTAINABILITY 253
Soil Salinity 254
Soil Acidity 254
Texture and Structure 255
Soil Management 256
Soil Erosion 256
7-9 SOIL CONSERVATION 256
Chapter Review 260
Problems 261
Discussion Questions 263
References 264
Additional Reading 264
8 Water Quality Management 265
Point Sources 266
8-2 WATER POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES 266
8-1 INTRODUCTION 266
Nutrients 267
Oxygen-Demanding Material 267
Nonpoint Sources 267
Salts 268
Suspended Solids 268
Pathogenic Organisms 268
Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals 269
Toxic Metals and Toxic Organic Compounds 269
Arsenic 270
8-3 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN RIVERS 271
Heat 271
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 272
Effect of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes on Rivers 272
Laboratory Measurement of Biochemical Oxygen Demand 276
Additional Notes on Biochemical Oxygen Demand 279
Nitrogen Oxidation 280
DO Sag Curve 282
Effect of Nutrients on Water Quality in Rivers 297
Control of Phosphorus in Lakes 298
8-4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN LAKES 298
Acidification of Lakes 302
8-5 WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES 307
8-6 WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS 309
Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters 312
8-7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 312
Chapter Review 316
Problems 317
Discussion Questions 320
References 321
Additional Reading 321
9 Water Treatment 323
9-1 INTRODUCTION 324
Water Quality 325
Microbiological Characteristics 326
Chemical Characteristics 326
Physical Characteristics 326
Water Quality Standards 327
Radiological Characteristics 327
Water Classification and Treatment Systems 328
Colloid Stability and Destabilization 330
9-2 RAPID MIXING,FLOCCULATION,AND COAGULATION 330
Coagulants 331
Mixing and Flocculation 334
Hardness 337
9-3 SOFTENING 337
Lime-Soda Softening 342
Ion-Exchange Softening 345
Overview 347
9-4 SEDIMENTATION 347
Determination of Settling Velocity(vs) 348
Determination of Overflow Rate(vo) 350
9-5 FILTRATION 351
Disinfection Kinetics 354
9-6 DISINFECTION 354
Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products 355
Chlorine Dioxide 356
Chlorine Reactions in Water 356
Membrane Processes 357
9-7 OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR DRINKING WATER 357
Ozonation 357
Ultraviolet Radiation 357
Aeration 358
Carbon Adsorption 358
Advanced OxidationProcesses(AOPs) 358
9-8 WATER PLANT RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT 359
Mass-Balance Analysis 360
Sludge Treatment 361
Ultimate Disposal 365
Chapter Review 366
Problems 367
Additional Reading 369
Discussion Questions 369
References 370
10 Wastewater Treatment 371
Physical Characteristics 372
10-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER 372
10-1 INTRODUCTION 372
Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 373
Chemical Characteristics 373
Alternative On-Site Treatment and Disposal Systems with Water 375
10-3 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 375
On-Site Treatment and Disposal Systems for Unfavorable Site Conditions 378
Alternative On-Site Treatment-Disposal Systems Without Water 381
Other On-Site Treatment and Disposal Options 381
Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes 383
10-4 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS 383
Grit Chambers 384
Bar Racks 384
10-5 UNIT OPERATIONS OF PRETREATMENT 384
Equalization 386
Comminutors 386
10-6 PRIMARY TREATMENT 390
Classification of Microorganisms 391
Role of Microorganisms 391
10-7 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY TREATMENT 391
Overview 391
Bacterial Biochemistry 392
Some Organisms of Interest in Wastewater Treatment 392
Decomposition of Waste 393
Population Dynamics 395
Trickling Filters 396
Activated Sludge 398
Oxidation Ponds 409
Rotating Biological Contactors 411
10-8 DISINFECTION 412
Carbon Adsorption 413
Filtration 413
10-9 ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT 413
Phosphorus Removal 414
Nitrogen Control 415
Slow Rate 416
10-10 LAND TREATMENT 416
Overland Flow 417
Sources and Characteristics of Various Sludges 418
10-11 SLUDGE TREATMENT 418
Rapid Infiltration 418
Solids Computations 419
Sludge Treatment Processes 421
Utilization 427
Dedicated Land Disposal(DLD) 427
10-12 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 427
Ultimate Disposal 427
Land Spreading 427
Landfilling 427
Chapter Review 428
Sludge Disposal Regulations 428
Problems 429
Additional Reading 432
Discussion Questions 432
References 433
11 Air Pollution 435
Relativity 436
Pressure Relationships and Units of Measure 436
11-1 AIR POLLUTION PERSPECTIVE 436
11-2 FUNDAMENTALS 436
11-3 AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS 437
Adiabatic Expansion and Compression 437
Effects on Materials 440
11-4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS 440
Effects on Vegetation 441
Effects on Health 443
Carbon Monoxide 447
11-5 ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIR POLLUTANTS 447
Nitrogen Dioxide 448
Lead 448
Hazardous Air Pollutants(HAPs) 448
Sulfur Oxides 449
Photochemical Oxidants 449
Indoor Air Pollution 451
11-6 MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION 451
Particulates 451
Acid Rain 454
Ozone Depletion 455
Global Warming 457
The Atmospheric Engine 458
11-7 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 458
Turbulence 459
Stability 460
Terrain Effects 462
Factors Affecting Dispersion of Air Pollutants 464
11-8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION 464
Dispersion Modeling 465
11-9 INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL 471
Gaseous Pollutants 472
11-10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES 472
Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides 476
Flue Gas Desulfurization 476
Particulate Pollutants 477
Engine Fundamentals 481
11-11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCES 481
Control of Automobile Emissions 482
11-12 WASTE MINIMIZATION 483
Chapter Review 484
Problems 485
Additional Reading 486
Discussion Questions 486
References 487
12 Solid Waste Engineering 489
Magnitude of the Problem 490
12-1 PERSPECTIVE 490
12-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE 491
12-4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION 494
12-3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 494
Background and Perspective 495
12-5 WASTE AS RESOURCE 495
Recycling 497
Green Chemistry and Green Engineering 497
Composting 500
Source Reduction 501
Combustion Processes 502
12-6 SOLID WASTE REDUCTION 502
Types of Incinerators 504
Public Health and Environmental Issues 506
12-7 DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL 507
Other Thermal Treatment Processes 507
Site Selection 508
Operation 509
Leachate 511
Environmental Considerations 511
Methane and Other Gas Production 515
Landfill Design 518
Chapter Review 519
Landfill Closure 519
Problems 520
Discussion Questions 521
References 522
Additional Reading 522
13 Hazardous Waste Management 525
Dioxins and PCBs 526
13-1 THE HAZARD 526
13-2 EPA'S HAZARDOUS WASTE DESIGNATION SYSTEM 528
Cradle-to-Grave Concept 529
Congressional Actions on Hazardous Waste 529
13-3 RCRA AND HSWA 529
Generator Requirements 531
Transporter Regulations 532
Treatment,Storage,and Disposal Requirements 533
Underground Storage Tanks 535
The Hazard Ranking System 536
The National Priority List 536
13-4 CERCLA AND SARA 536
The Superfund Law 536
The National Contingency Plan 537
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 538
Liability 538
Waste Minimization 539
13-5 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT 539
Recycling 542
Waste Exchange 542
Biological Treatment 543
13-6 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 543
Chemical Treatment 545
Physical/Chemical Treatment 548
Incineration 553
Stabilization-Solidification 559
The Secure Landfill 560
Land Treatment 560
13-7 LAND DISPOSAL 560
Deep Well Injection 560
EPA's Groundwater Remediation Procedure 564
The Process of Contamination 564
13-8 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION AND REMEDIATION 564
Mitigation and Treatment 566
Chapter Review 568
Problems 569
Discussion Questions 573
References 574
Additional Reading 574
14 Agriculture and the Environment 577
Water Use 578
14-2 DEPLETION OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 578
14-1 INTRODUCTION 578
Land Subsidence 579
14-3 SOIL EROSION 580
Salinization 583
14-4 WATER QUALITY 583
Nutrients 585
Pesticides 587
Malodorous Compounds 591
Ammonia Emissions 591
14-5 AIR QUALITY 591
Particulate Emissions 591
Greenhouse Gases 592
Manure Handling and Storage 593
14-6 ANIMAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 593
Effects on the Ozone Layer 593
Pesticides 593
Best Management Practices 594
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 594
Chapter Review 595
Manure Application 595
Problems 596
Discussion Questions 597
References 598
Additional Reading 598
15 Noise Pollution 599
15-1 INTRODUCTION 600
Properties of Sound Waves 601
Sound Power and Intensity 602
Levels and the Decibel 603
Characterization of Noise 605
The Hearing Mechanism 609
15-2 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE 609
Normal Hearing 612
Hearing Impairment 614
Speech Interference 616
Damage-Risk Criteria 616
Annoyance 617
Sleep Interference 618
Effects on Performance 619
The LN Concept 620
Goals of a Noise-Rating System 620
Acoustic Privacy 620
15-3 RATING SYSTEMS 620
The Leq Concept 621
Transportation Noise 622
15-4 COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCES AND CRITERIA 622
Other Internal Combustion Engines 623
Construction Noise 624
Zoning and Siting Considerations 625
Inverse Square Law 626
15-5 TRANSMISSION OF SOUND OUTDOORS 626
Levels to Protect Health and Welfare 626
Directivity 628
Radiation Fields of a Sound Source 628
Airborne Transmission 629
Source-Path-Receiver Concept 633
15-7 NOISE CONTROL 633
15-6 TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION 633
Leq Prediction 633
Ldn Prediction 633
Control of Noise Source by Design 634
Noise Control in the Transmission Path 635
Protect the Receiver 637
Control of Noise Source by Redress 637
Chapter Review 638
Problems 639
Discussion Questions 641
References 642
Additional Reading 642
16 Ionizing Radiation 643
Atomic Structure 644
16-1 FUNDAMENTALS 644
Radioactivity and Radiation 645
Radioactive Decay 647
Fission 650
Radioisotopes 650
The Production of X-Rays 651
Radiation Dose 653
16-2 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION 654
Determinants of Biological Effects 655
Sequential Pattern of Biological Effects 655
Delayed Effects 657
Relation of Dose to Type of Acute Radiation Syndrome 657
Acute Effects 657
Genetic Effects 659
16-3 RADIATION STANDARDS 661
Natural Background 663
External and Internal Radiation Hazards 663
16-4 RADIATION EXPOSURE 663
16-5 RADIATION PROTECTION 665
Radioactive Wastes 665
X-Rays 665
Radionuclides 665
Nuclear Reactor Operations 665
Reduction of External Radiation Hazards 666
Reduction of Internal Radiation Hazards 670
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 672
Management of High-Level Radioactive Waste 672
16-6 RADIOACTIVE WASTE 672
Types of Waste 672
Management of Low-Level Radioactive Waste 673
Long-Term Management and Containment 676
Chapter Review 678
Problems 679
References 680
Additional Reading 680
Discussion Questions 680
AppendixA Properties of Air,Water,and Selected Chemicals 681
Index 690