Chapter 1 Language,Meaning and Context: Pragmatics 1
Pragmatic Meaning 1
Context 2
Presupposition as Shared Knowledge 6
Preface 7
Paving the Way 9
Implicature 9
Defining Properties of Language 10
Cooperative Principle 12
Conversational Maxims 13
An Overview of Modern Linguistics 13
Speech Acts 14
Why speech acts? 14
The distinction between doing and saying 16
Classification of illocutionary acts 18
Language and Communication 19
Nonverbal Communication 20
Felicity conditions for illocutionary acts 20
Direct and indirect illocutionary acts 22
Politeness in Language 24
The notion of face 25
Positive politeness vs. negative politeness 26
Pragmatic Failure in Cross-Cultural Communication 27
Recommended Readings 29
Exercises 30
Chapter 2 The Sound System of Language:Phonology 35
Vocal Tract 35
The Phonetic Alphabet 36
Classification and Description of the Speech Sounds 39
Consonants 40
Vowels 43
Minimal Pairs 48
The Phoneme 49
Phonological Rules 51
Suprasegmentals 53
Recommended Readings 60
Exercises 60
Chapter 3 The Analysis of Word Structure:Morphology 69
The Nature of Words 69
Morpheme Classification 71
Allomorphs 78
Features of Morphemes 80
Word Formation 83
Exercises 97
Recommended Readings 97
Chapter 4 The Analysis of Meaning: Semantics 101
Meanings of Meaning 102
Approaches to the study of meaning 102
Meaning-carriers 104
Types of meaning 106
Words and Their Meanings 107
Ambiguity revisited 107
Semantic normality and abnormality 109
Types of Sense Relations of Words 110
Syntagmatic relationships 111
Paradigmatic relationships 115
Semantic Field 122
Componential Analysis 123
Idioms 125
Recommended Readings 125
Exercises 126
Chapter 5 The Structure of Sentence:Syntax 131
Immediate Constituent 133
Phrase Structure Rules 139
Transformation 151
Current Approaches to the Study of Syntax 173
X-bar theory 175
Alpha movement 181
Island constraints 196
Recommended Readings 202
Exercises 203
Chapter 6 Language Change 207
Language Change and Historical Linguistics 208
Family tree hypothesis 210
Grimm's Law 214
Wave theory 214
Aspects of Language Change 216
Phonological change 216
Morphological change 218
Lexical change 222
Semantic change 224
Syntactic change 225
Reasons for Language Change 228
Language Typology 231
Isolating, agglutinative and inflectional 231
Word order 234
Recommended Readings 235
Exercises 235
Chapter 7 Language Variation 241
Code Switching 242
New York City study 248
Variation and Social Class 248
Social stratification in other communities 250
The consensus view vs. the conflict view of social class 253
Variation and Social Network 255
Variation and Gender 259
Gender and sociolinguistic variation 261
Gender differences in conversation 265
Gender differences in interactional strategies 267
Two Approaches to Gender Variation: Dominance or Difference? 270
Language and the Social Construction of Gender 275
Variation and Style 277
Style as attention paid to speech 277
Style as audience design 279
Speaker-based approaches to style 281
Variation and Language Change 284
Change in real and apparent time 285
Origin and propagation of change 286
Recommended Readings 292
Exercises 292
Chapter 8 Language Acquisition 295
First Language Acquisition 295
Stages in first language acquisition 297
Issues in first language acquisition 314
Second Language Acquisition 328
Issues in second language acquisition 329
Recommended Readings 333
Exercises 334
References 335
Glossary 347
Subject Index 367