Part Ⅰ State and Changes in Dryland East Asia 1
1 State and Change of Dryland East Asia(DEA) 3
1.1 Geography,Demography and Economics in DEA 3
1.2 Climate and Land-Use Changes 10
1.3 Ecosystem Production and Evapotranspiration 14
1.4 Scientific and Societal Challenges for Adaptations in DEA 16
References 20
2 Dryland East Asia in Hemispheric Context 23
2.1 Study Regions 23
2.2 Change Analysis of Vegetated Land Surface 25
2.3 Retrospective Trend Analysis Reveals Areas of Significant Change 26
2.4 Vegetation Change in Three Epochs 27
2.5 Land Cover Variation and Change 30
2.6 Precipitation Variation and Change 34
2.7 Conclusion 38
References 39
3 NEESPI and MAIRS Programs in Dryland East Asia 45
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Contrast and Comparison 47
3.2.1 The Programs 47
3.2.2 Research Approaches 48
3.2.3 Organization Structure 49
3.2.4 Major Research Activities 49
3.3 Major Findings and Achievements 50
3.3.1 Understanding Climate Change 50
3.3.2 Understanding Societal Consequences 51
3.3.3 Understanding Ecosystem Impacts 53
3.3.4 Institutional Responses to Environmental Change 54
3.3.5 Understanding Challenges 54
3.4 Conclusions 56
References 57
4 Land Use and Land Cover Change in Dryland East Asia 61
4.1 Introduction 62
4.2 Global Land Use Changes through Centuries 65
4.3 Long-Term Changes in Cropland and Pastureland in DEA 66
4.4 Recent Changes in Asian Drylands 68
4.4.1 Rangeland Degradation and Desertification and Increased Cropland 68
4.4.2 Grassland Recovery 72
4.4.3 Reforestation/Afforestation 72
4.5 Sahel Land Use Change 74
References 78
5 Urban Expansion and Environment Change in Dryland East Asia 81
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Study Area,Data,and Methodology 83
5.2.1 Study Area 83
5.2.2 Data and Methodology 85
5.3 Findings 86
5.3.1 Urban Expansion 87
5.3.2 Environment Impact 90
5.4 Case of ？rümqi 92
5.4.1 Spatio-Temporal Change in ？rümqi 92
5.4.2 Environment Challenges of ？rümqi 94
5.5 Discussion 96
5.5.1 Characteristics of Urbanization in Arid Regions 96
5.5.2 Socio-Economic Factors Driving Urbanization 97
5.6 Conclusions 99
References 100
6 Ecosystem Carbon Cycle under Changing Atmosphere,Climate and Land Use in Dryland East Asia 105
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Simulated Ecosystem Carbon Patterns in DEA 106
6.3 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Atmospheric Change 110
6.3.1 CO2 Enrichment 110
6.3.2 Nitrogen Deposition and Its Impact on DEA Ecosystems 111
6.4 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Climate Change 112
6.4.1 Responses to Precipitation Changes 112
6.4.2 Responses to Temperature Changes 113
6.5 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Land Use and Land Cover Changes 114
6.6 Interactions among Environmental Changes 115
6.6.1 Limitation of Nitrogen Availability on CO2 Impacts 115
6.6.2 Dependence of Nitrogen Effects on Water Status(Precipitation Regimes) 116
6.6.3 Interaction between Temperature(Warming)and Water Availability(Precipitation) 116
6.6.4 Relationship and Interactions between Land Use and Climate Changes on Ecosystem Carbon Cycling 117
6.7 Carbon Sequestration Potential and Human Adaption to Climate Change 118
References 118
7 Dynamics of Vegetation Productivity in Dryland East Asia from 1982 to 2010 125
7.1 Introduction 125
7.2 Data and Methods 127
7.2.1 AVHRR NDVI 127
7.2.2 MODIS NDVI 128
7.2.3 Land Cover Map 129
7.2.4 MERRA Reanalysis Data 129
7.2.5 Agricultural Statistics 129
7.2.6 Statistical Analysis 131
7.3 Results and Discussion 131
7.3.1 Trends of Spatially-Averaged NDVI 131
7.3.2 Spatial Patterns of NDVI Trends 135
7.3.3 Climatic Drivers 137
7.3.4 Other Drivers 139
7.4 Conclusions 142
References 143
Summary Ⅰ:Contexts of Change 149
Part Ⅱ Consequences 151
8 Impacts of Global Change on Water Resources in Dryland East Asia 153
8.1 Introduction 154
8.2 Key Water Resource Challenges 157
8.2.1 Distribution of Water Balances across DEA and Historical Changes 157
8.2.2 Land Use/Land Cover Change 160
8.2.3 Agricultural Irrigation and Industrialization 163
8.2.4 Climate Change 165
8.3 Water Resources under Environmental Changes:Case Studies 167
8.3.1 Loess Plateau 167
8.3.2 hnpacts of Future Climate Change on Runoff across DEA 171
8.4 Conclusions 174
References 175
9 Examining Changes in Land Cover and Land Use,Regional Climate and Dust in Dryland East Asia and Their Linkages within the Earth System 183
9.1 Introduction 184
9.2 Assessment of Decadal Dust Emission Based on Historical LCLU,Regional Climate and the Regional Coupled Dust Modeling System WRF-Chem-DuMo 185
9.3 Observation-based Dust Climatology and Its Relationship to LCLU and Regional Climate 194
9.4 A Satellite Perspective on the Last Decade 199
9.5 Impacts of Dust on Human-Environment-Climate Systems 203
References 206
10 Biophysical Regulations of Grassland Ecosystem Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 213
10.1 Brief Introduction of Abiotic and Biotic Factors in Relation to Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 213
10.2 Biophysical Regulations of Carbon Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands 220
10.2.1 Responses of Daytime Net Ecosystem Exchange to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 220
10.2.2 Response of Nighttime NEE(Re)to T and SWC 224
10.3 Ecosystem Carbon Fluxes between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 227
10.3.1 Responses of Daytime NEE to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 227
10.3.2 Response of Nighttime NEE(Re)to T and SWC 230
10.4 Biophysical Regulations of Water and Energy Fluxes 232
10.4.1 Energy Partitioning and Its Response to Abiotic/Biotic Factors 232
10.4.2 Ecosystem Water and Energy Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands and between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 233
References 240
11 Afforestation and Forests at the Dryland Edges:Lessons Learned and Future Outlooks 245
11.1 Introduction 245
11.2 Vegetation Zonation and Climate 246
11.3 Climate Forcing Effect of Forests:Ambiguous Conditions at the Dryland Edges 247
11.3.1 Low Elevation Xeric Limits:Vulnerable Forest-Grassland Transition 250
11.3.2 Management of Forests—Plantations vs.Close to Nature Ecosystems 251
11.4 Effects of Forest Management on Forest Hydrological Balances in Dry Regions:A Comparison of China and the United States 252
11.4.1 China 253
11.4.2 United States 254
11.5 Past and Future of Forest Policy in Dryland Regions of China 255
11.5.1 Causes and Consequences of Expanding Desertification 255
11.5.2 Shelterbelt Development and Sand Control Programs in China 255
11.5.3 Debates and Critics about the Achievements of the Past Programs 256
11.5.4 Lessons Learned from Past 258
11.6 Conclusions 258
References 259
12 Human Impact and Land Degradation in Mongolia 265
12.1 Introduction 266
12.2 Land Degradation Overview 266
12.2.1 Mining Land Degradation 267
12.2.2 Land Degradation by Road 269
12.2.3 Pastureland Degradation and Desertification 270
12.2.4 Soil Erosion of Arable Land 272
12.2.5 Deforestation 273
12.2.6 Soil Pollution 274
12.3 Use of Fallout Radionuclide Methods for Soil Erosion Study 274
12.4 Conclusions 278
References 279
13 The Effect of Large-Scale Conservation Programs on the Vegetative Development of China's Loess Plateau 283
13.1 Introduction 284
13.2 Conservation Programs 285
13.3 Study Region 286
13.3.1 Loess Plateau 286
13.3.2 Subset for Fine Scale Analysis 287
13.4 Data 288
13.4.1 MODIS Data 288
13.4.2 Landsat Data 289
13.4.3 Grazing Statistics 290
13.4.4 Anthromes 290
13.5 Methods 293
13.6 Results and Discussion 293
13.6.1 Vegetation Index and Albedo Changes 293
13.6.2 500m NDVI Changes 296
13.6.3 Grazing Intensity Change 298
13.7 Conclusions 302
References 303
Summary Ⅱ:Consequences 307
Part Ⅲ Solutions/Adaptations 309
14 Monitoring and Assessment of Dryland Ecosystems with Remote Sensing 311
14.1 Problems of Land Degradation and Desertification in Drylands:Current Challenges and Perspectives 312
14.2 Indicators of Land Degradation/Desertification and Their Detection by Remote Sensing 318
14.2.1 History of Degradation/Desertification Indicator Development in Recent Decades 318
14.2.2 Retrieving Biophysical Spectral Information with Remote Sensing for DLDD 322
14.2.3 Bio-physiological Indexes for Assessment and Monitoring 329
14.3 Review of Available Sensors and Data over DEA and Their Suitability for Detecting Desertification Indicators 332
14.3.1 Short Outlook on Euture Satellite Sensors over DEA 335
14.4 Remote Sensing Approach for Desertification Assessment in Central Asia:History,Current Research,and Perspectives—A Case Study 337
14.5 Conclusions 342
References 343
15 The Effects of Spatial Resolution on Vegetation Area Estimates in the Lower Tarim River Basin,Northwestern China 351
15.1 Introduction 351
15.2 Study Area 353
15.3 Methodology 354
15.4 Results and Discussion 356
15.5 Conclusions 360
References 361
16 New Ecology Education:Preparing Students for the Complex Human- Environmental Problems of Dryland East Asia 363
16.1 Introduction 364
16.2 Description of New Ecology Education 365
16.2.1 Topic 1:What's Going On?(Conceptual Models) 369
16.2.2 Topic 2:Life Is So Confusing!(Nonlinearity) 370
16.2.3 Topic 3:Everything Is Connected to Everything Else(Systems Thinking) 374
16.2.4 Topic 4:Climbing Up-and-Down the Complexity Ladder(Hierarchy Theory) 376
16.2.5 Topic 5:What Does It Take to Change This System?(Resilience) 378
16.2.6 Topic 6:Coping with Land Degradation in Drylands(Ecosystem Services) 382
16.2.7 Topic 7:Unraveling the Complexity of Coupled H-E Systems and Desertification(The Drylands Development Paradigm) 386
16.2.8 Topic 8:Where Art,Science,and Craft Meet(Ostrom's Framework) 392
16.3 Conclusions 394
References 396
17 Grassland Degradation and Restoration in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China from the 1950s to 2000s:Population,Policies and Profits 405
17.1 Introduction 405
17.2 Population and Urbanization in IM 407
17.2.1 Population Evolution 408
17.2.2 Population and Over-Grazing 409
17.2.3 Urbanization and Restoration 410
17.3 Policy,Laws and Regulation for Grassland 412
17.4 From Production to Profits 414
17.4.1 Animal Husbandry 414
17.4.2 Tourism Development 416
17.4.3 Environmental Service 418
17.5 Conclusions 418
References 420
18 Sustainable Governance of the Mongolian Grasslands:Comparing Ecological and Social-Institutional Changes in the Context of Climate Change in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,China 425
18.1 Introduction 426
18.2 Explanatory Models of Grassland Dynamics 427
18.3 Analyses and Results 429
18.3.1 Collectivization of Pastures and Livestock 431
18.3.2 Privatization and Market Incentives 434
18.3.3 Recentralization of Grassland Management in IM,China 436
18.3.4 Changing Roles of the State,Market and Community for Grassland Management 437
18.3.5 Climate Variability and Change:History and Future 438
18.4 Discussion 439
18.5 Conclusions 442
References 443
19 Adaptive Management of Grazing Lands 447
19.1 Introduction 447
19.2 Distribution of Grazing Lands and Problems 450
19.3 Case Study and Adaptive Management in IM 451
19.3.1 Study Site 451
19.3.2 The ACIAR-Model 452
19.3.3 Typical Farm 453
19.3.4 Economic Stocking Rate 453
19.3.5 Improved Feeding of Livestock during Winter and Spring 454
19.3.6 Changing Lambing Time 456
19.3.7 Use of Warm Sheds during Cold Seasons 458
19.4 Conclusions and Discussion 460
References 463
Summary Ⅲ:Solutions and Adaptations 465
Index 467