社会 气候交互变化中的东亚干旱与半干旱区生态系统研究PDF电子书下载

Part Ⅰ State and Changes in Dryland East Asia 1

1 State and Change of Dryland East Asia(DEA) 3

1.1 Geography,Demography and Economics in DEA 3

1.2 Climate and Land-Use Changes 10

1.3 Ecosystem Production and Evapotranspiration 14

1.4 Scientific and Societal Challenges for Adaptations in DEA 16

References 20

2 Dryland East Asia in Hemispheric Context 23

2.1 Study Regions 23

2.2 Change Analysis of Vegetated Land Surface 25

2.3 Retrospective Trend Analysis Reveals Areas of Significant Change 26

2.4 Vegetation Change in Three Epochs 27

2.5 Land Cover Variation and Change 30

2.6 Precipitation Variation and Change 34

2.7 Conclusion 38

References 39

3 NEESPI and MAIRS Programs in Dryland East Asia 45

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Contrast and Comparison 47

3.2.1 The Programs 47

3.2.2 Research Approaches 48

3.2.3 Organization Structure 49

3.2.4 Major Research Activities 49

3.3 Major Findings and Achievements 50

3.3.1 Understanding Climate Change 50

3.3.2 Understanding Societal Consequences 51

3.3.3 Understanding Ecosystem Impacts 53

3.3.4 Institutional Responses to Environmental Change 54

3.3.5 Understanding Challenges 54

3.4 Conclusions 56

References 57

4 Land Use and Land Cover Change in Dryland East Asia 61

4.1 Introduction 62

4.2 Global Land Use Changes through Centuries 65

4.3 Long-Term Changes in Cropland and Pastureland in DEA 66

4.4 Recent Changes in Asian Drylands 68

4.4.1 Rangeland Degradation and Desertification and Increased Cropland 68

4.4.2 Grassland Recovery 72

4.4.3 Reforestation/Afforestation 72

4.5 Sahel Land Use Change 74

References 78

5 Urban Expansion and Environment Change in Dryland East Asia 81

5.1 Introduction 81

5.2 Study Area,Data,and Methodology 83

5.2.1 Study Area 83

5.2.2 Data and Methodology 85

5.3 Findings 86

5.3.1 Urban Expansion 87

5.3.2 Environment Impact 90

5.4 Case of ？rümqi 92

5.4.1 Spatio-Temporal Change in ？rümqi 92

5.4.2 Environment Challenges of ？rümqi 94

5.5 Discussion 96

5.5.1 Characteristics of Urbanization in Arid Regions 96

5.5.2 Socio-Economic Factors Driving Urbanization 97

5.6 Conclusions 99

References 100

6 Ecosystem Carbon Cycle under Changing Atmosphere,Climate and Land Use in Dryland East Asia 105

6.1 Introduction 105

6.2 Simulated Ecosystem Carbon Patterns in DEA 106

6.3 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Atmospheric Change 110

6.3.1 CO2 Enrichment 110

6.3.2 Nitrogen Deposition and Its Impact on DEA Ecosystems 111

6.4 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Climate Change 112

6.4.1 Responses to Precipitation Changes 112

6.4.2 Responses to Temperature Changes 113

6.5 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Land Use and Land Cover Changes 114

6.6 Interactions among Environmental Changes 115

6.6.1 Limitation of Nitrogen Availability on CO2 Impacts 115

6.6.2 Dependence of Nitrogen Effects on Water Status(Precipitation Regimes) 116

6.6.3 Interaction between Temperature(Warming)and Water Availability(Precipitation) 116

6.6.4 Relationship and Interactions between Land Use and Climate Changes on Ecosystem Carbon Cycling 117

6.7 Carbon Sequestration Potential and Human Adaption to Climate Change 118

References 118

7 Dynamics of Vegetation Productivity in Dryland East Asia from 1982 to 2010 125

7.1 Introduction 125

7.2 Data and Methods 127

7.2.1 AVHRR NDVI 127

7.2.2 MODIS NDVI 128

7.2.3 Land Cover Map 129

7.2.4 MERRA Reanalysis Data 129

7.2.5 Agricultural Statistics 129

7.2.6 Statistical Analysis 131

7.3 Results and Discussion 131

7.3.1 Trends of Spatially-Averaged NDVI 131

7.3.2 Spatial Patterns of NDVI Trends 135

7.3.3 Climatic Drivers 137

7.3.4 Other Drivers 139

7.4 Conclusions 142

References 143

Summary Ⅰ:Contexts of Change 149

Part Ⅱ Consequences 151

8 Impacts of Global Change on Water Resources in Dryland East Asia 153

8.1 Introduction 154

8.2 Key Water Resource Challenges 157

8.2.1 Distribution of Water Balances across DEA and Historical Changes 157

8.2.2 Land Use/Land Cover Change 160

8.2.3 Agricultural Irrigation and Industrialization 163

8.2.4 Climate Change 165

8.3 Water Resources under Environmental Changes:Case Studies 167

8.3.1 Loess Plateau 167

8.3.2 hnpacts of Future Climate Change on Runoff across DEA 171

8.4 Conclusions 174

References 175

9 Examining Changes in Land Cover and Land Use,Regional Climate and Dust in Dryland East Asia and Their Linkages within the Earth System 183

9.1 Introduction 184

9.2 Assessment of Decadal Dust Emission Based on Historical LCLU,Regional Climate and the Regional Coupled Dust Modeling System WRF-Chem-DuMo 185

9.3 Observation-based Dust Climatology and Its Relationship to LCLU and Regional Climate 194

9.4 A Satellite Perspective on the Last Decade 199

9.5 Impacts of Dust on Human-Environment-Climate Systems 203

References 206

10 Biophysical Regulations of Grassland Ecosystem Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 213

10.1 Brief Introduction of Abiotic and Biotic Factors in Relation to Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 213

10.2 Biophysical Regulations of Carbon Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands 220

10.2.1 Responses of Daytime Net Ecosystem Exchange to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 220

10.2.2 Response of Nighttime NEE(Re)to T and SWC 224

10.3 Ecosystem Carbon Fluxes between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 227

10.3.1 Responses of Daytime NEE to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 227

10.3.2 Response of Nighttime NEE(Re)to T and SWC 230

10.4 Biophysical Regulations of Water and Energy Fluxes 232

10.4.1 Energy Partitioning and Its Response to Abiotic/Biotic Factors 232

10.4.2 Ecosystem Water and Energy Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands and between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 233

References 240

11 Afforestation and Forests at the Dryland Edges:Lessons Learned and Future Outlooks 245

11.1 Introduction 245

11.2 Vegetation Zonation and Climate 246

11.3 Climate Forcing Effect of Forests:Ambiguous Conditions at the Dryland Edges 247

11.3.1 Low Elevation Xeric Limits:Vulnerable Forest-Grassland Transition 250

11.3.2 Management of Forests—Plantations vs.Close to Nature Ecosystems 251

11.4 Effects of Forest Management on Forest Hydrological Balances in Dry Regions:A Comparison of China and the United States 252

11.4.1 China 253

11.4.2 United States 254

11.5 Past and Future of Forest Policy in Dryland Regions of China 255

11.5.1 Causes and Consequences of Expanding Desertification 255

11.5.2 Shelterbelt Development and Sand Control Programs in China 255

11.5.3 Debates and Critics about the Achievements of the Past Programs 256

11.5.4 Lessons Learned from Past 258

11.6 Conclusions 258

References 259

12 Human Impact and Land Degradation in Mongolia 265

12.1 Introduction 266

12.2 Land Degradation Overview 266

12.2.1 Mining Land Degradation 267

12.2.2 Land Degradation by Road 269

12.2.3 Pastureland Degradation and Desertification 270

12.2.4 Soil Erosion of Arable Land 272

12.2.5 Deforestation 273

12.2.6 Soil Pollution 274

12.3 Use of Fallout Radionuclide Methods for Soil Erosion Study 274

12.4 Conclusions 278

References 279

13 The Effect of Large-Scale Conservation Programs on the Vegetative Development of China's Loess Plateau 283

13.1 Introduction 284

13.2 Conservation Programs 285

13.3 Study Region 286

13.3.1 Loess Plateau 286

13.3.2 Subset for Fine Scale Analysis 287

13.4 Data 288

13.4.1 MODIS Data 288

13.4.2 Landsat Data 289

13.4.3 Grazing Statistics 290

13.4.4 Anthromes 290

13.5 Methods 293

13.6 Results and Discussion 293

13.6.1 Vegetation Index and Albedo Changes 293

13.6.2 500m NDVI Changes 296

13.6.3 Grazing Intensity Change 298

13.7 Conclusions 302

References 303

Summary Ⅱ:Consequences 307

Part Ⅲ Solutions/Adaptations 309

14 Monitoring and Assessment of Dryland Ecosystems with Remote Sensing 311

14.1 Problems of Land Degradation and Desertification in Drylands:Current Challenges and Perspectives 312

14.2 Indicators of Land Degradation/Desertification and Their Detection by Remote Sensing 318

14.2.1 History of Degradation/Desertification Indicator Development in Recent Decades 318

14.2.2 Retrieving Biophysical Spectral Information with Remote Sensing for DLDD 322

14.2.3 Bio-physiological Indexes for Assessment and Monitoring 329

14.3 Review of Available Sensors and Data over DEA and Their Suitability for Detecting Desertification Indicators 332

14.3.1 Short Outlook on Euture Satellite Sensors over DEA 335

14.4 Remote Sensing Approach for Desertification Assessment in Central Asia:History,Current Research,and Perspectives—A Case Study 337

14.5 Conclusions 342

References 343

15 The Effects of Spatial Resolution on Vegetation Area Estimates in the Lower Tarim River Basin,Northwestern China 351

15.1 Introduction 351

15.2 Study Area 353

15.3 Methodology 354

15.4 Results and Discussion 356

15.5 Conclusions 360

References 361

16 New Ecology Education:Preparing Students for the Complex Human- Environmental Problems of Dryland East Asia 363

16.1 Introduction 364

16.2 Description of New Ecology Education 365

16.2.1 Topic 1:What's Going On?(Conceptual Models) 369

16.2.2 Topic 2:Life Is So Confusing!(Nonlinearity) 370

16.2.3 Topic 3:Everything Is Connected to Everything Else(Systems Thinking) 374

16.2.4 Topic 4:Climbing Up-and-Down the Complexity Ladder(Hierarchy Theory) 376

16.2.5 Topic 5:What Does It Take to Change This System?(Resilience) 378

16.2.6 Topic 6:Coping with Land Degradation in Drylands(Ecosystem Services) 382

16.2.7 Topic 7:Unraveling the Complexity of Coupled H-E Systems and Desertification(The Drylands Development Paradigm) 386

16.2.8 Topic 8:Where Art,Science,and Craft Meet(Ostrom's Framework) 392

16.3 Conclusions 394

References 396

17 Grassland Degradation and Restoration in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China from the 1950s to 2000s:Population,Policies and Profits 405

17.1 Introduction 405

17.2 Population and Urbanization in IM 407

17.2.1 Population Evolution 408

17.2.2 Population and Over-Grazing 409

17.2.3 Urbanization and Restoration 410

17.3 Policy,Laws and Regulation for Grassland 412

17.4 From Production to Profits 414

17.4.1 Animal Husbandry 414

17.4.2 Tourism Development 416

17.4.3 Environmental Service 418

17.5 Conclusions 418

References 420

18 Sustainable Governance of the Mongolian Grasslands:Comparing Ecological and Social-Institutional Changes in the Context of Climate Change in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,China 425

18.1 Introduction 426

18.2 Explanatory Models of Grassland Dynamics 427

18.3 Analyses and Results 429

18.3.1 Collectivization of Pastures and Livestock 431

18.3.2 Privatization and Market Incentives 434

18.3.3 Recentralization of Grassland Management in IM,China 436

18.3.4 Changing Roles of the State,Market and Community for Grassland Management 437

18.3.5 Climate Variability and Change:History and Future 438

18.4 Discussion 439

18.5 Conclusions 442

References 443

19 Adaptive Management of Grazing Lands 447

19.1 Introduction 447

19.2 Distribution of Grazing Lands and Problems 450

19.3 Case Study and Adaptive Management in IM 451

19.3.1 Study Site 451

19.3.2 The ACIAR-Model 452

19.3.3 Typical Farm 453

19.3.4 Economic Stocking Rate 453

19.3.5 Improved Feeding of Livestock during Winter and Spring 454

19.3.6 Changing Lambing Time 456

19.3.7 Use of Warm Sheds during Cold Seasons 458

19.4 Conclusions and Discussion 460

References 463

Summary Ⅲ:Solutions and Adaptations 465

Index 467