1 The Biotechnology Century and Its Workforce 1
1.1 What Is Biotechnology and What Does It Mean to You? 2
A Brief History of Biotechnology 2
Biotechnology:A Science of Many Disciplines 5
Products of Modern Biotechnology 6
Ethics and Biotechnology 8
1.2 Types of Biotechnology 8
Microbial Biotechnology 8
Agricultural Biotechnology 8
Animal Biotechnology 10
Forensic Biotechnology 10
Bioremediation 11
Aquatic Biotechnology 12
Medical Biotechnology 12
Regulatory Biotechnology 13
The Biotechnology"Big Picture" 13
1.3 Biological Challenges of the 21st Century 14
What Will the New Biotechnology Century Look Like? 14
A Scenario in the Future:How Might We Benefit from the Human Genome Project? 14
1.4 The Biotechnology Workforce 18
The Business of Biotechnology 19
Organization of a Biotechnology Company 19
Jobs in Biotechnology 20
Salaries in Biotechnology 23
Hiring Trends in the Biotechnology Industry 24
Questions＆Activities 25
References and Further Reading 25
2 An Tntroduction to Genes and Genomes 26
2.1 A Review of Cell Structure 27
Prokaryotic Cells 27
Eukaryotic Cells 28
2.2 The Molecule of Life 30
Evidence That DNA Is the Inherited Genetic Material 30
DNA Structure 32
What Is a Gene? 33
2.3 Chromosome Structure, DNA Replication,and Genomes 33
Chromosome Structure 34
DNA Replication 37
What Is a Genome? 38
2.4 RNA and Protein Synthesis 39
Copying the Code:Transcription 40
Translating the Code:Protein Synthesis 43
Basics of Gene Expression Control 46
2.5 Mutations:Causes and Consequences 51
Types of Mutations 51
Mutations Can Be Inherited or Acquired 53
Mutations Are the Basis of Variation in Genomes and a Cause of Human Genetic Diseases 54
Questions＆Activities 55
References and Further Reading 56
3 Recombinant DNA Technology and Genomics 57
3.1 Introduction to Recombinant DNA Technology and DNA Cloning 58
Restriction Enzymes and Plasmid DNA Vectors 58
Transformation of Bacterial Cells and Antibiotic Selection of Recombinant Bacteria 61
Introduction to Human Gene Cloning 63
3.2 What Makes a Good Vector? 65
Practical Features of DNA Cloning Vectors 65
Types of Vectors 66
3.3 How Do You Identify and Clone a Gene of Interest? 68
Creating DNA Libraries:Building a Collection of Cloned Genes 68
Polymerase Chain Reaction 71
3.4 What Can You Do With a Cloned Gene?Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology 75
Gel Electrophoresis and Mapping Gene Structure with Restriction Enzymes 75
DNA Sequencing 78
Chromosomal Location and Gene Copy Number 80
Studying Gene Expression 81
Northern Blot Analysis 82
3.5 Genomics and Bioinformatics:Hot New Areas of Biotechnology 87
Bioinformatics:Merging Molecular Biology with Computing Technology 87
Examples of Bioinformatics in Action 87
A Genome Cloning Effort of Epic Proportion:The Human Genome Project 89
What Have We Learned from the Human Genome? 90
The Human Genome Project Started an"Omics"Revolution 92
Comparative Genomics 92
Stone Age Genomics 93
Questions＆Activities 95
References and Further Reading 95
4 Proteins as Products 97
4.1 Introduction to Proteins as Biotech Products 98
4.2 Proteins as Biotechnology Products 98
Making a Biotech Drug 99
Medical Applications 100
Food Processing 100
Textiles and Leather Goods 101
Detergents 101
Paper Manufacturing and Recycling 101
Adhesives:Natural Glues 101
Bioremediation:Treating Pollution with Proteins 102
4.3 Protein Structures 102
Structural Arrangement 102
Protein Folding 103
Glycosylation 104
Protein Engineering 104
4.4 Protein Production 106
Protein Expression:The First Phase in Protein Processing 107
4.5 Protein Purification Methods 109
Preparing the Extract for Purification 109
Stabilizing the Proteins in Solution 109
Separating the Components in the Extract 110
4.6 Verification 114
4.7 Preserving Proteins 115
4.8 Scale-up of Protein Purification 116
4.9 Postpurification Analysis Methods 116
Protein Sequencing 116
X-ray Crystallography 116
4.10 Proteomics 117
Questions＆Activities 118
References and Further Reading 118
5 Microbial Biotechnology 119
5.1 The Structure of Microbes 120
Yeast Are Important Microbes Too 121
5.2 Microorganisms as Tools 122
Microbial Enzymes 123
Bacterial Transformation 123
Electroporation 124
Cloning and Expression Techniques 125
5.3 Using Microbes for a Variety of Everyday Applications 127
Food Products 127
Therapeutic Proteins 131
Using Microbes Against Other Microbes 131
Field Applications of Recombinant Microorganisms 134
5.4 Vaccines 135
A Primer on Antibodies 136
How Are Vaccines Made? 137
Bacterial and Viral Targets for Vaccines 139
5.5 Microbial Genomes 141
Why Sequence Microbial Genomes? 141
Microbial Genome Sequencing Strategies 142
Selected Genomes Sequenced to Date 142
SorcererⅡ:Traversing the Globe to Sequence Microbial Genomes 143
Viral Genomics 144
Assembling Genomes to Produce Human-Made Viruses 145
5.6 Microbial Diagnostics 145
Bacterial Detection Strategies 145
Tracking Disease-Causing Microorganisms 147
Microarrays for Tracking Contagious Diseases 147
5.7 Combating Bioterrorism 148
Microbes as Bioweapons 149
Targets of Bioterrorism 150
Using Biotechnology Against Bioweapons 151
Questions＆Activities 153
References and Further Reading 154
6 Plant Biotechnology 155
6.1 Agriculture:The Next Revolution 156
6.2 Methods Used in Plant Transgenesis 157
Conventional Selective Breeding and Hybridization 157
Cloning:Growing Plants from Single Cells 157
Protoplast Fusion 157
Leaf Fragment Technique 158
Gene Guns 158
Chloroplast Engineering 159
Antisense Technology 159
6.3 Practical Applications in the Field 161
Vaccines for Plants 161
Genetic Pesticides:A Safer Alternative? 162
Safe Storage 163
Herbicide Resistance 163
Stronger Fibers 163
Enhanced Nutrition 164
The Future:From Pharmaceuticals to Fuel 164
Metabolic Engineering 166
6.4 Health and Environmental Concerns 167
Concerns About Human Health 168
Concerns About the Environment 168
Regulations 169
Questions＆Activities 170
References and Further Reading 170
7 Animal Biotechnology 171
7.1 Introduction to Animal Biotechnology 172
7.2 Animals in Research 172
Animal Models 172
Alternatives to Animal Models 174
Regulation of Animal Research 175
Veterinary Medicine as Clinical Trials 176
Bioengineering Mosquitoes to Prevent Malaria 177
7.3 Clones 177
Creating Dolly:A Breakthrough in Cloning 177
The Limits to Cloning 178
The Future of Cloning 179
7.4 Transgenic Animals 180
Transgenic Techniques 180
Improving Agricultural Products with Transgenics 181
Transgenic Animals as Bioreactors 183
Knockouts:A Special Case of Transgenics 184
7.5 Producing Human Antibodies in Animals 186
Monoclonal Antibodies 186
Eggs as Antibody Factories 188
Questions＆Activities 188
References and Further Reading 189
8 DNA Fingerprinting and Forensic Analysis 190
8.1 Introduction to DNA Fingerprinting and Forensics 191
8.2 What Is a DNA Fingerprint? 191
How Is DNA Typing Performed? 191
8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint 192
Specimen Collection 192
Extracting DNA for Analysis 193
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism(RFLP)Analysis 193
The Southern Blot Technique 193
PCR and DNA Amplification 196
Dot Blot(or Slot Blot)Analysis 196
STR Analysis 196
8.4 Putting DNA to Use 196
The Narborough Village Murders 197
The Forest Hills Rapist 197
Terrorism and Natural Disasters Force Development of New Technologies 199
8.5 DNA and the Rules of Evidence 200
DNA Fingerprinting and the Simpson and Goldman Murders 201
Human Error and Sources of Contamination 201
DNA and Juries 202
8.6 Familial Relationships and DNA Profiles 202
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis 202
Y-Chromosome Analysis 203
8.7 Nonhuman DNA Analysis 204
DNA Tagging to Fight Fraud 206
Questions＆Activities 206
References and Further Reading 207
9 Bioremediation 208
9.1 What Is Bioremediation? 209
Why Is Bioremediation Important? 209
9.2 Bioremediation Basics 210
What Needs to Be Cleaned Up? 210
Chemicals in the Environment 211
Fundamentals of Cleanup Reactions 211
The Players:Metabolizing Microbes 213
Bioremediation Genomics Programs 215
9.3 Cleanup Sites and Strategies 217
Soil Cleanup 217
Bioremediation of Water 218
Turning Wastes into Energy 220
9.4 Applying Genetically Engineered Strains to Clean Up the Environment 222
Petroleum-Eating Bacteria 222
Engineering E.coli to Clean Up Heavy Metals 223
Biosensors 224
Genetically Modified Plants and Phytoremediation 224
9.5 Environmental Disasters:Case Studies in Bioremediation 225
Jet Fuel and Hanahan,South Carolina 225
The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 225
Oil Fields of Kuwait 226
9.6 Future Strategies and Challenges for Bioremediation 227
Recovering Valuable Metals 228
Bioremediation of Radioactive Wastes 229
Questions＆Activities 230
References and Further Reading 230
10 Aquatic Biotechnology 231
10.1 Introduction to Aquatic Biotechnology 232
10.2 Aquaculture:Increasing the World's Food Supply Through Biotechnology 232
The Economics of Aquaculture 232
Fish Farming Practices 235
Improving Strains for Aquaculture 238
Enhancing Seafood Quality and Safety 239
Barriers and Limitations to Aquaculture 239
The Future of Aquaculture 242
10.3 Molecular Genetics of Aquatic Organisms 242
Discovery and Cloning of Novel Genes 242
Genetic Manipulations of Finfish and Shellfish 247
10.4 Medical Applications of Aquatic Biotechnology 251
Drugs and Medicines from the Sea 251
Monitoring Health and Human Disease 254
10.5 Nonmedical Products 254
A Potpourri of Products 254
Biomass and Bioprocessing 255
10.6 Environmental Applications of Aquatic Biotechnology 256
Antifouling Agents 256
Biosensors 257
Environmental Remediation 257
Questions＆Activities 259
References and Further Reading 259
11 Medical Biotechnology 260
11.1 The Power of Molecular Biology:Detecting and Diagnosing Human Disease Conditions 261
Models of Human Disease 261
Biomarkers for Disease Detection 263
Detecting Genetic Diseases 263
11.2 Medical Products and Applications of Biotechnology 268
The Search for New Medicines and Drugs 269
Artificial Blood 273
Vaccines and Therapeutic Antibodies 273
11.3 Gene Therapy 275
How Is It Done? 275
Curing Genetic Diseases:Targets for Gene Therapy 279
Challenges Facing Gene Therapy 281
11.4 The Potential of Regenerative Medicine 282
Cell and Tissue Transplantation 282
Tissue Engineering 285
Stem Cell Technologies 287
Cloning 293
Embryonic Stem Cell and Therapeutic Cloning Regulations in the United States 297
11.5 The Human Genome Project Has Revealed Disease Genes on All Human Chromosomes 298
Piecing Together the Human Genome Puzzle 298
Questions＆Activities 303
References and Further Reading 303
12 Biotechnology Regulations 305
12.1 The Regulatory Framework 306
12.2 U.S.Department of Agriculture 308
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 308
Permitting Process 308
The APHIS Investigative Process 308
The Notification Process 309
1 2.3 The Environmental Protection Agency 309
Experimental Use Permits 309
The First Experimental Use Permit 309
Deregulation and Commercialization 310
12.4 Food and Drug Administration 311
Food and Food Additives 311
The Drug Approval Process 311
Good Laboratory(GLP),Clinical(GCP),and Manufacturing(GMP)Practices 312
Phase Testing of Drugs 312
Faster Drug Approval versus Public Safety 313
12.5 Legislation and Regulation:The Ongoing Role of Government 314
Labeling Biotechnology Products 316
The Fluvirin Failure 316
12.6 Introduction to Patents 317
The Value of Patents in the Biotechnology Industry 318
Patenting DNA Sequences 319
12.7 Biotechnology Products in the Global Marketplace 321
Questions＆Activities 322
References and Further Reading 323
13 Ethics and Biotechnology 324
13.1 What Is Ethics? 325
Approaches to Ethical Decision Making 325
Ethical Exercise Warm-Up 326
13.2 Biotechnology and Nature 327
Cells and Products 328
GM Crops:Are You What You Eat? 328
Animal Husbandry or Animal Tinkering? 331
The Human Question 332
What Does It Mean to Be Human? 333
Spare Embryos for Research Versus Creating Embryos for Research 335
Cloning 336
Patient Rights and Biological Materials 337
Regulations in Flux 338
Your Genes,Your Self 338
More or Less Human? 339
13.3 Economics,the Role of Science,and Communication 340
Questions＆Activities 342
References and Further Reading 343