Fundamentals of Optics FOURTH EDITIONPDF电子书下载

Part One Geometrical Optics 1

1 Properties of Light 3

1.1 The Rectilinear Propagation of Light 5

1.2 The Speed of Light 6

1.3 The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter 8

1.4 The Refractive Index 9

1.5 Optical Path 10

1.6 Laws of Reflection and Refraction 11

1.7 Graphical Construction for Refraction 13

1.8 The Principle of Reversibility 14

1.9 Fermat's Principle 14

1.10 Color Dispersion 18

2 Plane Surfaces and Prisms 24

2.1 Parallel Beam 24

2.2 The Critical Angle and Total Reflection 25

2.3 Plane-Parallel Plate 28

2.4 Refraction by a Prism 29

2.5 Minimum Deviation 30

2.6 Thin Prisms 32

2.7 Combinations-of Thin Prisms 32

2.8 Graphical Method of Ray Tracing 33

2.9 Direct-Vision Prisms 34

2.10 Reflection of Divergent Rays 36

2.11 Refraction of Divergent Rays 36

2.12 Images Formed by Paraxial Rays 38

2.13 Fiber Optics 40

3 Spherical Surfaces 44

3.1 Focal Points and Focal Lengths 45

3.2 Image Formation 46

3.3 Virtual Images 47

3.4 Conjugate Points and Planes 47

3.5 Convention of Signs 50

3.6 Graphical Constructions. The Parallei-Ray Method 50

3.7 Oblique-Ray Methods 52

3.8 Magnification 54

3.9 Reduced Vergence 54

3.10 Derivation of the Gaussian Formula 56

3.11 Nomography 57

4 Thin Lenses 60

4.1 Focal Points and Focal Lengths 60

4.2 Image Formation 62

4.3 Conjugate Points and Planes 62

4.4 The Parallel-Ray Method 62

4.5 The Oblique-Ray Method 63

4.6 Use of the Lens Formula 64

4.7 Lateral Magnification 64

4.8 Virtual Images 65

4.9 Lens Makers' Formula 67

4.10 Thin-Lens Combinations 68

4.11 Object Space and Image Space 70

4.12 The Power of a Thin Lens 70

4.13 Thin Lenses in Contact 71

4.14 Derivation of the Lens Formula 72

4.15 Derivation of the Lens Makers'Formula 73

5 Thick Lenses 78

5.7 Two Spherical Surfaces 78

5.2 The Parallel-Ray Method 79

5.3 Focal Points and Principal Points 81

5.4 Conjugate Relations 82

5.5 The Oblique-Ray Method 82

5.6 General Thick-Lens Formulas 84

5.7 Special Thick Lenses 88

5.8 Nodal Points and Optical Center 88

5.9 Other Cardinal Points 90

5.10 Thin-Lens Combination as a Thick Lens 91

5.11 Thick-Lens Combinations 93

5.12 Nodal Slide 93

6 Spherical Mirrors 98

6.1 Focal Point and Focal Length 98

6.2 Graphical Constructions 99

6.3 Mirror Formulas 102

6.4 Power of Mirrors 104

6.5 Thick Mirrors 105

6.6 Thick-Mirror Formulas 107

6.7 Other Thick Mirrors 109

6.8 Spherical Aberration 109

6.9 Astigmatism 111

7 The Effects of Stops 115

7.1 Field Stop and Aperture Stop 115

7.2 Entrance and Exit Pupils 116

7.3 Chief Ray 117

7.4 Front Stop 117

7.5 Stop between Two Lenses 118

7.6 Two Lenses with No Stop 120

7.7 Determination of the Aperture Stop 121

7.8 Field of View 122

7.9 Field of a Plane Mirror 122

7.10 Field of a Convex Mirror 124

7.11 Field of a Positive Lens 124

8 Ray Tracing 130

8.1 Oblique Rays 130

8.2 Graphical Method for Ray Tracing 131

8.3 Ray-tracing Formulas 134

8.4 Sample Ray-tracing Calculations 135

9 Lens Aberrations 149

9.1 Expansion of the Sine. First-Order Theory 150

9.2 Third-Order Theory of Aberrations 151

9.3 Spherical Aberration of a Single Surface 152

9.4 Spherical Aberration of a Thin Lens 153

9.5 Results of Third-Order Theory 157

9.6 Fifth-Order Spherical Aberration 160

9.7 Coma 162

9.8 Aplanatic Points of a Spherical Surface 166

9.9 Astigmatism 167

9.10 Curvature of Field 170

9.11 Distortion 171

9.12 The Sine Theorem and Abbe's Sine Condition 173

9.13 Chromatic Aberration 176

9.14 Separated Doublet 182

10 Optical Instruments 188

10.1 The Human Eye 188

10.2 Cameras and Photographic Objectives 191

10.3 Speed of Lenses 191

10.4 Meniscus Lenses 193

10.5 Symmetrical Lenses 193

10.6 Triplet Anastigmats 194

10.7 Telephoto Lenses 195

10.8 Magnifiers 195

10.9 Types of Magnifiers 198

10.10 Spectacle Lenses 198

10.11 Microscopes 200

10.12 Microscope Objectives 201

10.13 Astronomical Telescopes 202

10.14 Oculars and Eyepieces 205

10.15 Huygens Eyepiece 205

10.16 Ramsden Eyepiece 206

10.17 Kellner or Achromatized Ramsden Eyepiece 206

10.18 Special Eyepieces 206

10.19 Prism Binoculars 207

10.20 The Kellner-Schmidt Optical System 208

10.21 Concentric Optical Systems 209

Part Two Wave Optics 213

11 Vibrations and Waves 214

11.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 216

11.2 The Theory of Simple Harmonic Motion 217

11.3 Stretching of a Coiled Spring 218

11.4 Vibrating Spring 221

11.5 Transverse Waves 223

11.6 Sine Waves 224

11.7 Phase Angles 225

11.8 Phase Velocity and Wave Velocity 228

11.9 Amplitude and Intensity 229

11.10 Frequency and Wavelength 232

11.11 Wave Packets 235

12 The Superposition of Waves 238

12.1 Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions along the Same Line 239

12.2 Vector Addition of Amplitudes 240

12.3 Superposition of Two Wave Trains of the Same Frequency 242

12.4 Superposition of Many Waves with Random Phases 244

12.5 Complex Waves 246

12.6 Fourier Analysis 248

12.7 Group Velocity 250

12.8 Graphical Relation between Wave and Group Velocity 252

12.9 Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions at Right Angles 253

13 Interference of Two Beams of Light 259

13.1 Huygens' Principle 260

13.2 Young's Experiment 261

13.3 Interference Fringes from a Double Source 263

13.4 Intensity Distribution in the Fringe System 265

13.5 Fresnel's Biprism 266

13.6 Other Apparatus Depending on Division of the Wave Front 268

13.7 Coherent Sources 270

13.8 Division of Amplitude. Michelson Interferometer 271

13.9 Circular Fringes 273

13.10 Localized Fringes 275

13.11 White-Light Fringes 276

13.12 Visibility of the Fringes 277

13.13 Interferometnc Measurements of Length 279

13.14 Twyman and Green Interferometer 281

13.15 Index of Refraction by Interference Methods 282

14 Interference Involving Multiple Reflections 286

14.1 Reflection from a Plane-Parallel Film 288

14.2 Fringes of Equal Inclination 291

14.3 Interference in the Transmitted Light 292

14.4 Fringes of Equal Thickness 293

14.5 Newton's Rings 294

14.6 Nonreflecting Films 295

14.7 Sharpness of the Fringes 297

14.8 Method of Complex Amplitudes 299

14.9 Derivation of the Intensity Function 300

14.10 Fabry-Perot Interferometer 301

14.11 Brewster's Fringes 302

14.12 Chromatic Resolving Power 303

14.13 Comparison of Wavelengths with the Interferometer 305

14.14 Study of Hyperfine Structure and of Line Shape 308

14.15 Other Interference Spectroscopes 310

14.16 Channeled Spectra. Interference Filter 311

15 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Single Opening 315

15.1 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction 315

15.2 Diffraction by a Single Slit 316

15.3 Further Investigation of the Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern 319

15.4 Graphical Treatment of Amplitudes. The Vibration Curve 322

15.5 Rectangular Aperture 324

15.6 Resolving Power with a Rectangular Aperture 325

15.7 Chromatic Resolving Power of a Prism 327

15.8 Circular Aperture 329

15.9 Resolving Power of a Telescope 330

15.10 Resolving Power of a Microscope 332

15.11 Diffraction Patterns with Sound and Microwaves 334

16 The Double Slit 338

16.1 Qualitative Aspects of the Pattern 338

16.2 Derivation of the Equation for the Intensity 339

16.3 Comparison of the Single-Slit and Double-Slit Patterns 341

16.4 Distinction between Interference and Diffraction 341

16.5 Position of the Maxima and Minima. Missing Orders 342

16.6 Vibration Curve 346

16.7 Effect of Finite Width of Source Slit 347

16.8 Michelson's Stellar Interferometer 349

16.9 Correlation Interferometer 351

16.10 Wide-Angle Interference 352

17 The Diffraction Grating 355

17.1 Effect of Increasing the Number of Slits 355

17.2 Intensity Distribution from an Ideal Grating 357

17.5 Principal Maxima 358

17.4 Minima and Secondary Maxima 358

17.5 Formation of Spectra by a Grating 359

17.6 Dispersion 362

17.7 Overlapping of Orders 362

17.8 Width of the Principal Maxima 363

17.9 Resolving Power 364

17.10 Vibration Curve 365

17.11 Production of Ruled Gratings 368

17.12 Ghosts 370

17.13 Control of the Intensity Distribution among Orders 370

17.14 Measurement of Wavelength with the Grating 373

17.15 Concave Grating 373

17.16 Grating Spectrographs 374

18 Fresnel Diffraction 378

18.1 Shadows 378

18.2 Fresnel's Half-Period Zones 380

18.3 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture 383

18.4 Diffraction by a Circular Obstacle 384

18.5 Zone Plate 385

18.6 Vibration Curve for Circular Division of the Wave Front 386

18.7 Apertures and Obstacles with Straight Edges 388

18.8 Strip Division of the Wave Front 389

18.9 Vibration Curve for Strip Division. Cornu's Spiral 389

18.10 Fresnel's Integrals 390

18.11 The Straight Edge 393

18.12 Rectilinear Propagation of Light 395

18.13 Single Slit 397

18.14 Use of Fresnel's Integrals in Solving Diffraction Problems 399

18.15 Diffraction by an Opaque Strip 400

19 The Speed of Light 403

19.1 Romer's Method 403

19.2 Bradley's Method. The Aberration of Light 405

19.3 Michelson's Experiments 406

19.4 Measurements in a Vacuum 408

19.5 Kerr-Cell Method 408

19.6 Speed of Radio Waves 410

19.7 Ratio of the Electrical Units 411

19.8 The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter 411

19.9 Speed of Light in Moving Matter 412

19.10 Fresnel's Dragging Coefficient 413

19.11 Airy's Experiment 414

19.12 Effect of Motion of the Observer 414

19.13 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 416

19.14 Principle of Relativity 418

19.15 The Three First-Order Relativity Effects 419

20 The Electromagnetic Character of Light 423

20.1 Transverse Nature of Light Vibrations 424

20.2 Maxwell's Equations for a Vacuum 424

20.3 Displacement Current 425

20.4 The Equations for Plane Electromagnetic Waves 427

20.5 Pictorial Representation of an Electromagnetic Wave 428

20.6 Light Vector in an Electromagnetic Wave 429

20.7 Energy and Intensity of the Electromagnetic Wave 429

20.8 Radiation from an Accelerated Charge 430

20.9 Radiation From a Charge in Periodic Motion 432

20.10 Hertz's Verification of the Existence of Electromagnetic Waves 432

20.11 Speed of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space 434

20.12 Cerenkov Radiation 434

21 Sources of Light and Their Spectra 438

21.1 Classification of Sources 438

21.2 Solids at High Temperature 439

21.3 Metallic Arcs 439

21.4 Bunsen Flame 442

21.5 Spark 442

21.6 Vacuum Tube 443

21.7 Classification of Spectra 445

21.8 Emittance and Absorptance 445

21.9 Continuous Spectra 447

21.10 Line Spectra 450

21.11 Series of Spectral Lines 452

21.12 Band Spectra 453

22 Absorption and Scattering 457

22.1 General and Selective Absorption 457

22.2 Distinction between Absorption and Scattering 458

22.3 Absorption by Solids and Liquids 459

22.4 Absorption by Gases 461

22.5 Resonance and Fluorescence of Gases 461

22.6 Fluorescence of Solids and Liquids 464

22.7 Selective Reflection. Residual Rays 464

22.8 Theory of the Connection between Absorption and Reflection 465

22.9 Scattering by Small Particles 466

22.10 Molecular Scattering 468

22.11 Raman Effect 469

22.12 Theory of Scattering 470

22.13 Scattering and Refractive Index 471

23 Dispersion 474

23.1 Dispersion of a Prism 474

23.2 Normal Dispersion 475

23.3 Cauchy's Equation 479

23.4 Anomalous Dispersion 479

23.5 Sellmeier's Equation 482

23.6 Effect of Absorption on Dispersion 485

23.7 Wave and Group Velocity in the Medium 487

23.8 The Complete Dispersion Curve of a Substance 488

23.9 The Electromagnetic Equations for Transparent Media 489

23.10 Theory of Dispersion 491

23.11 Nature of the Vibrating Particles and Frictional Forces 494

24 The Polarization of Light 497

24.1 Polarization by Reflection 498

24.2 Representation of the Vibrations in Light 499

24.3 Polarizing Angle and Brewster's Law 500

24.4 Polarization by a Pile of Plates 501

24.5 Law of Malus 503

24.6 Polarization by Dichroic Crystals 504

24.7 Double Refraction 505

24.8 Optic Axis 507

24.9 Principal Sections and Principal Planes 507

24.10 Polarization by Double Refraction 508

24.11 Nicol Prism 510

24.12 Parallel and Crossed Polarizers 511

24.13 Refraction by Calcite Prisms 511

24.14 Rochon and Wollaston Prisms 513

24.15 Scattering of Light and the Blue Sky 514

24.16 The Red Sunset 515

24.17 Polarization by Scattering 516

24.18 The Optical Properties of Gemstones 518

25 Reflection 523

25.1 Reflection from Dielectrics 523

25.2 Intensities of the Transmitted Light 526

25.3 Internal Reflection 527

25.4 Phase Changes on Reflection 527

25.5 Reflection of Plane-polarized Light from Dielectrics 529

25.6 Elliptically Polarized Light by Internal Reflection 531

25.7 Penetration into the Rare Medium 533

25.8 Metallic Reflection 534

25.9 Optical Constants of Metals 536

25.10 Description of the Light Reflected from Metals 538

25.11 Measurement of the Principal Angle of Incidence and Principal Azimuth 540

25.12 Wiener's Experiments 541

26 Double Refraction 544

26.1 Wave Surfaces for Uniaxial Crystals 544

26.2 Propagation of Plane Waves in Uniaxial Crystals 546

26.3 Plane Waves at Oblique Incidence 549

26.4 Direction of the Vibrations 550

26.5 Indices of Refraction for Uniaxial Crystals 551

26.6 Wave Surfaces in Biaxial Crystals 553

26.7 Internal Conical Refraction 556

26.8 External Conical Refraction 557

26.9 Theory of Double Refraction 559

27 Interference of Polarized Light 564

27.1 Elliptically and Circularly Polarized Light 564

27.2 Quarter- and Half-Wave Plates 567

27.3 Crystal Plates between Crossed Polarizers 568

27.4 Babinet Compensator 569

27.5 Analysis of Polarized Light 571

27.6 Interference with White Light 572

27.7 Polarizing Monochromatic Filter 575

27.8 Applications of Interference in Parallel Light 576

27.9 Interference in Highly Convergent Light 576

28 Optical Activity and Modern Wave Optics 581

28.1 Rotation of the Plane of Polarization 581

28.2 Rotary Dispersion 582

28.3 Fresnel's Explanation of Rotation 584

28.4 Double Refraction in Optically Active Crystals 586

28.5 Shape of the Wave Surfaces in Quartz 588

28.6 Fresnel's Multiple Prism 589

28.7 Cornu Prism 590

28.8 Vibration Forms and Intensities in Active Crystals 591

28.9 Theory of Optical Activity 593

28.10 Rotation in Liquids 594

28.11 Modern Wave Optics 596

28.12 Spatial Filtering 597

28.13 Phase-Contrast Microscope 602

28.14 Schlieren Optics 604

Part Three Quantum Optics 609

29 Light Quanta and Their Origin 611

29.1 The Bohr Atom 612

29.2 Energy Levels 616

29.3 Bohr-Stoner Scheme for Building Up Atoms 617

29.4 Elliptical Orbits, or Penetrating Orbitals 619

29.5 Wave Mechanics 622

29.6 The Spectrum of Sodium 625

29.7 Resonance Radiation 626

29.8 Metastable States 629

29.9 Optical Pumping 630

30 Lasers 632

30.1 Stimulated Emission 633

30.2 Laser Design 634

30.3 The Ruby Laser 635

30.4 The Helium-Neon Gas Laser 636

30.5 Concave Mirrors and Brewster's Windows 642

30.6 The Carbon Dioxide Laser 643

30.7 Resonant Cavities 646

30.8 Coherence Length 650

30.9 Frequency Doubling 652

30.10 Other Lasers 653

30.11 Laser Safety 653

30.12 The Speckle Effect 653

30.13 Laser Applications 654

31 Holography 658

31.1 The Basic Principles of Holography 659

31.2 Viewing a Hologram 664

31.3 The Thick, or Volume, Hologram 665

31.4 Multiplex Holograms 669

31.5 White-Light-Reflection Holograms 670

31.6 Other Holograms 672

31.7 Student Laboratory Holography 675

32 Magneto-Optics and Electro-Optics 678

32.1 Zeeman Effect 679

32.2 Inverse Zeeman Effect 685

32.3 Faraday Effect 686

32.4 Voigt Effect, or Magnetic Double Refraction 688

32.5 Cotton-Mouton Effect 690

32.6 Kerr Magneto-optic Effect 691

32.7 Stark Effect 691

32.8 Inverse Stark Effect 692

32.9 Electric Double Refraction 693

32.10 Kerr Electro-optic Effect 693

32.11 Pockels Electro-optic Effect 695

33 The Dual Nature of Light 698

33.1 Shortcomings of the Wave Theory 699

33.2 Evidence for Light Quanta 700

33.3 Energy, Momentum, and Velocity of Photons 703

33.4 Development of Quantum Mechanics 704

33.5 Principle of Indeterminacy 705

33.6 Diffraction by a Slit 705

33.7 Complementarity 707

33.8 Double Slit 707

33.9 Determination of Position with a Microscope 709

33.10 Use of a Shutter 710

33.11 Interpretation of the Dual Character of Light 711

33.12 Realms of Applicability of Waves and Photons 712

Appendixes 715

Ⅰ The Physical Constants 716

Ⅱ Electron Subshells 717

Ⅲ Refractive Indices and Dispersions for Optical Glasses 720

Ⅳ Refractive Indices and Dispersions of Optical Crystals 721

Ⅴ The Most Intense Fraunhofer Lines 722

Ⅵ Abbreviated Number System 723

Ⅶ Significant Figures 724

Index 727