Thermodynamics An Enfineering Approach Enghth Edition in Si UnitsPDF电子书下载

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1

1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy 2

Application Areas of Thermodynamics 3

1-2 Importance of Dimensions and Units 3

Some Sl and English Units 6

Dimensional Homogeneity 8

Unity Conversion Ratios 9

1-3 Systems and Control Volumes 10

1-4 Properties of a System 12

Continuum 12

1-5 Density and Specific Gravity 13

1-6 State and Equilibrium 14

The State Postulate 15

1-7 Processes and Cycles 15

The Steady-Flow Process 16

1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 17

Temperature Scales 18

The International Temperature Scale of 1990（ITS-90） 20

1-9 Pressure 22

Variation of Pressure with Depth 24

1-10 Pressure Measurement Devices 27

The Barometer 27

The Manometer 30

Other Pressure Measurement Devices 33

1-11 Problem-Solving Technique 34

Step 1：Problem Statement 34

Step 2：Schematic 35

Step 3：Assumptions and Approximations 35

Step 4：Physical Laws 35

Step 5：Properties 35

Step 6：Calculations 35

Step 7：Reasoning，Verification，and Discussion 35

Engineering Software Packages 36

Engineering Equation Solver（EES） 37

A Remark on Significant Digits 39

Summary 40

References and Suggested Readings 41

Problems 41

CHAPTER TWO ENERGY，ENERGY TRANSFER，AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS 51

2-1 Introduction 52

2-2 Forms of Energy 53

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy 55

More on Nuclear Energy 56

Mechanical Energy 58

2-3 Energy Transfer by Heat 60

Historical Background on Heat 61

2-4Energy Transfer by Work 62

Electrical Work 65

2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work 66

Shaft Work 66

Spring Work 67

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars 67

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film 68

Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body 68

Nonmechanical Forms of Work 70

2-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 70

Energy Balance 72

Energy Change of a System，ΔEsystem 72

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer，En and Eout 73

2-7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 78

Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices 82

2-8 Energy and Environment 85

Ozone and Smog 86

Acid Rain 87

The Greenhouse Effect：Global Warming and Climate Change 88

Topic of Special Interest：Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 91

Summary 96

References and Suggested Readings 97

Problems 97

CHAPTER THREE PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 111

3-1 Pure Substance 112

3-2 Phases of a Pure Substance 112

3-3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances 113

Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid 114

Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor 114

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure 115

Some Consequences of Tat and Psat Dependence 116

3-4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes 118

1 The T-v Diagram 118

2 The P-v Diagram 120

Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 120

3 The P-T Diagram 122

The P-v-T Surface 123

3-5 Property Tables 124

Enthalpy—A Combination Property 124

1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 125

1b Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture 127

2 Superheated Vapor 130

3 Compressed Liquid 131

Reference State and Reference Values 132

3-6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 134

Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas？ 137

3-7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 138

3-8 Other Equations of State 141

van der Waals Equation of State 142

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State 142

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State 143

Virial Equation of State 144

Topic of Special Interest：Vapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium 146

Summary 150

References and Suggested Readings 151

Problems 151

CHAPTER FOUR ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS 163

4-1 Moving Boundary Work 164

Polytropic Process 168

4-2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems 169

4-3 Specific Heats 174

4-4 Internal Energy，Enthalpy，and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 176

Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases 178

4-5 Internal Energy，Enthalpy，and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 183

Internal Energy Changes 184

Enthalpy Changes 184

Topic of Special Interest：Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological Systems 187

Summary 195

References and Suggested Readings 195

Problems 196

CHAPTER FIVE MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL VOLUMES 213

5-1 Conservation of Mass 214

Mass and Volume Flow Rates 214

Conservation of Mass Principle 216

Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 218

Special Case：Incompressible Flow 219

5-2 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid 221

Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid 222

Energy Transport by Mass 223

5-3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems 225

5-4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 228

1 Nozzles and Diffusers 229

2 Turbines and Compressors 232

3 Throttling Valves 234

4a Mixing Chambers 236

4b Heat Exchangers 238

5 Pipe and Duct Flow 240

5-5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes 242

Topic of Special Interest：General Energy Equation 247

Summary 251

References and Suggested Readings 252

Problems 252

CHAPTER SIX THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 275

6-1 Introduction to the Second Law 276

6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs 277

6-3 Heat Engines 278

Thermal Efficiency 279

Can We Save Qout？ 281

The Second Law of Thermodynamics：Kelvin-Planck Statement 283

6-4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 283

Coefficient of Performance 284

Heat Pumps 285

Performance of Refrigerators，Air-Conditioners，and Heat Pumps 286

The Second Law of Thermodynamics：Clausius Statement 288

Equivalence of the Two Statements 289

6-5 Perpetual-Motion Machines 290

6-6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 292

Irreversibilities 293

Internally and Externally Reversible Processes 294

6-7 The Carnot Cycle 295

The Reversed Carnot Cycle 297

6-8 The Carnot Principles 297

6-9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 299

6-10 The Carnot Heat Engine 301

The Quality of Energy 302

Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life 303

6-11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump 304

Topic of Special Interest：Household Refrigerators 307

Summary 311

References and Suggested Readings 312

Problems 312

CHAPTER SEVEN ENTROPY 329

7-1 Entropy 330

A Special Case：Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes 333

7-2 The Increase of Entropy Principle 334

Some Remarks about Entropy 336

7-3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 337

7-4 Isentropic Processes 340

7-5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 342

7-6 What Is Entropy？ 343

Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life 346

7-7 The T ds Relations 347

7-8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids 349

7-9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 352

Constant Specific Heats（Approximate Analysis） 353

Variable Specific Heats（Exact Analysis） 353

Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases 355

Constant Specific Heats（Approximate Analysis） 355

Variable Specific Heats（Exact Analysis） 356

Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume 356

7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work 359

Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work When the Process is Reversible 362

7-11 Minimizing the Compressor Work 363

Multistage Compression with Intercooling 364

7-12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices 367

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines 367

Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps 369

Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles 371

7-13 Entropy Balance 373

Entropy Change of a System，ΔSsvstem 374

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer，Sin and Sout 374

1 Heat Transfer 374

2 Mass Flow 375

Entropy Generation，Sen 376

Closed Systems 377

Control Volumes 378

Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer Process 385

Topic of Special Interest：Reducing the Cost of Compressed Air 386

Summary 395

References and Suggested Readings 396

Problems 397

CHAPTER EIGHT EXERGY 421

8-1 Exergy：Work Potential of Energy 422

Exergy（Work Potential） Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy 423

8-2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility 425

8-3 Second-Law Efficiency 430

8-4 Exergy Change of a System 433

Exergy of a Fixed Mass：Nonflow（or Closed System） Exergy 433

Exergy of a Flow Stream：Flow（or Stream）Exergy 436

8-5 Exergy Transfer by Heat，Work，And Mass 438

Exergy by Heat Transfer，Q 439

Exergy Transfer by Work，W 440

Exergy Transfer by Mass，m 440

8-6 The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction 441

Exergy Destruction 442

8-7 Exergy Balance：Closed Systems 443

8-8 Exergy Balance：Control Volumes 454

Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems 455

Reversible Work 456

Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices 456

Topic of Special Interest：Second-Law Aspects of Daily Life 463

Summary 467

References and Suggested Readings 468

Problems 468

CHAPTER NINE GAS POWER CYCLES 485

9-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles 486

9-2 The Carnot Cycle and its Value in Engineering 488

9-3 Air-Standard Assumptions 490

9-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 490

9-5 Otto Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 492

9-6 Diesel Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 499

9-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 502

9-8 Brayton Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 506

Development of Gas Turbines 509

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones 512

9-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 513

9-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling，Reheating，and Regeneration 516

9-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 520

Modifications to Turbojet Engines 524

9-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 526

Topic of Special Interest：Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly 530

Summary 536

References and Suggested Readings 538

Problems 538

CHAPTER TEN VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES 553

10-1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle 554

10-2 Rankine Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles 555

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle 555

10-3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones 558

10-4 How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle？ 561

Lowering the Condenser Pressure（Lowers Tlow，avg） 561

Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures（Increases T high，avg） 562

Increasing the Boiler Pressure（Increases T high avg） 562

10-5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle 565

10-6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle 569

Open Feedwater Heaters 569

Closed Feedwater Heaters 571

10-7 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles 577

10-8 Cogeneration 579

10-9 Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycles 584

Topic of Special Interest：Binary Vapor Cycles 587

Summary 589

References and Suggested Readings 590

Problems 590

CHAPTER ELEVEN REFRIGERATION CYCLES 607

11-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 608

11-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 609

11-3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 610

11-4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 613

11-5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 615

11-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 620

11-7 Heat Pump Systems 622

11-8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 623

Cascade Refrigeration Systems 624

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems 626

Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor 628

Liquefaction of Gases 629

11-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 630

11-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 633

Topic of Special Interest：Thermoelectric Power Generation and Refrigeration Systems 636

Summary 638

References and Suggested Readings 639

Problems 639

CHAPTER TWELVE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS 655

12-1 A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and Associated Relations 656

Partial Differentials 657

Partial Differential Relations 659

12-2 The Maxwell Relations 661

12-3 The Clapeyron Equation 662

12-4 General Relations For du，dh，ds，cv，and c p 665

Internal Energy Changes 666

Enthalpy Changes 666

Entropy Changes 667

Specific Heats cv and c p 668

12-5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 672

12-6 The Δh，Δu，and Δs of Real Gases 674

Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases 674

Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases 675

Entropy Changes of Real Gases 676

Summary 679

References and Suggested Readings 680

Problems 680

CHAPTER THIRTEEN GAS MIXTURES 687

13-1 Composition of a Gas Mixture：Mass and Mole Fractions 688

13-2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures：Ideal and Real Gases 690

Ideal-Gas Mixtures 691

Real-Gas Mixtures 692

13-3 Properties of Gas Mixtures：Ideal and Real Gases 695

Ideal-Gas Mixtures 696

Real-Gas Mixtures 700

Topic of Special Interest：Chemical Potential and the Separation Work of Mixtures 704

Summary 714

References and Suggested Readings 715

Problems 716

CHAPTER FOURTEEN GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING 725

14-1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 726

14-2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air 727

14-3 Dew-Point Temperature 729

14-4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 731

14-5 The Psychrometric Chart 734

14-6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 735

14-7 Air-Conditioning Processes 737

Simple Heating and Cooling（ω = constant） 738

Heating with Humidification 739

Cooling with Dehumidification 740

Evaporative Cooling 742

Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams 743

Wet Cooling Towers 745

Summary 747

References and Suggested Readings 748

Problems 749

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 759

15-1 Fuels and Combustion 760

15-2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes 764

15-3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion 771

15-4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 774

Steady-Flow Systems 775

Closed Systems 776

15-5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 780

15-6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems 782

15-7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 784

Topic of Special Interest：Fuel Cells 790

Summary 792

References and Suggested Readings 793

Problems 793

CHAPTER SIXTEEN CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 805

16-1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium 806

16-2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures 808

16-3 Some Remarks about the Kp of Ideal-Gas Mixtures 812

16-4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions 816

16-5 Variation of Kp with Temperature 818

16-6 Phase Equilibrium 820

Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System 820

The Phase Rule 822

Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System 822

Summary 828

References and Suggested Readings 829

Problems 829

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 839

17-1 Stagnation Properties 840

17-2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 843

17-3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 845

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 847

Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 849

17-4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles 851

Converging Nozzles 852

Converging-Diverging Nozzles 856

17-5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 860

Normal Shocks 860

Oblique Shocks 866

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves 870

17-6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction（Rayleigh Flow） 875

Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 881

Choked Rayleigh Flow 882

17-7 Steam Nozzles 884

Summary 887

References and Suggested Readings 888

Problems 889

APPENDIX PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS 897

Table A-1 Molar mass，gas constant，and critical-point properties 898

Table A-2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases 899

Table A-3 Properties of common liquids，solids，and foods 902

Table A-4 Saturated water—Temperature table 904

Table A-5 Saturated water—Pressure table 906

Table A-6 Superheated water 908

Table A-7 Compressed liquid water 912

Table A-8 Saturated ice-water vapor 913

Figure A-9 T-s diagram for water 914

Figure A-10 Mollier diagram for water 915

Table A-11 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table 916

Table A-12 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table 918

Table A-13 Superheated refrigerant-134a 919

Figure A-14 P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 921

Figure A-15 Nelson-Obert generalized compressibility chart 922

Table A-16 Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude 923

Table A-17 Ideal-gas properties of air 924

Table A-18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen，N2 926

Table A-19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen，O2 928

Table A-20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide，CO2 930

Table A-21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide，CO 932

Table A-22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen，H2 934

Table A-23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor，H2O 935

Table A-24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen，O 937

Table A-25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl，OH 937

Table A-26 Enthalpy of formation，Gibbs function of formation，and absolute entropy at 25℃，1 atm 938

Table A-27 Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons 939

Table A-28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium constant Kp 940

Figure A-29 Generalized enthalpy departure chart 941

Figure A-30 Generalized entropy departure chart 942

Figure A-31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure 943

Table A-32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 944

Table A-33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 945

Table A-34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 946

INDEX 947