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1.1 The Study of Chemistry 1

The Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 1

1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement 1

Why Study Chemistry? 3

Chemistry at Work Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 4

1.2 Classifications of Matter 5

States of Matter 5

Pure Substances and Mixtures 6

Separation of Mixtures 7

Elements 9

Compounds 10

Physical and Chemical Changes 11

1.3 Properties of Matter 11

1.4 Units of Measurement 12

SI Units 13

A Closer Look The Scientific Method 13

Length and Mass 14

Temperature 15

Derived SI Units 16

Volume 16

Density 17

Chemistry at Work Chemistry in the News 18

1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement 20

Precision and Accuracy 20

Significant Figures 21

Significant Figures in Calculations 22

1.6 Dimensional Analysis 24

Using Two or More Conversion Factors 25

Conversions Involving Volume 25

Summary of Dimensional Analysis 26

Strategies in Chemistry The Importance of Practice 27

Summary and Key Terms 28

Exercises 29

eMedia Exercises 33

2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter 35

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 35

2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure 37

Cathode Rays and Electrons 37

Radioactivity 39

The Nuclear Atom 39

2.3 The Modem View of Atomic Structure 41

A Closer Look Basic Forces 41

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers, and Mass Numbers 43

2.4 The Periodic Table 44

Molecules and Chemical Formulas 47

2.5 Molecules and Molecular Compounds 47

Picturing Molecules 48

Molecular and Empirical Formulas 48

2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds 49

Predicting Ionic Charges 50

Ionic Compounds 51

Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living Organisms 53

2.7 Naming Inorganic Compounds 54

Names. and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 54

Strategies in Chemistry Pattern Recognition 54

Names and Formulas of Acids 58

Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 60

Summary and Key Terms 60

Exercises 61

eMedia Exercises 65

3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 67

3.1 Chemical Equations 68

3.2 Patterns of Chemical Reactivity 70

Using the Periodic Table 70

Combustion in Air 71

Combination and Decomposition Reactions 72

The Atomic Mass Scale 74

3.3 Atomic and Molecular Weights 74

Average Atomic Masses 75

Formula and Molecular Weights 76

Percentage Composition from Formulas 76

3.4 The Mole 77

A Closer Lood The Mass spectromter 78

Molar Mass 79

Strategies in Chemistry Problem Solving 79

Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Numbers of Particles 81

3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses 83

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula 84

Combustion Analysis 85

3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations 86

Chemistry at Work CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect 90

3.7 Limiting Reactants 91

Theoretical Yields 93

Summary and Key Terms 94

Exercises 95

eMedia Exercises 103

4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 105

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 106

Electrolytic Properties 106

Ionic Compounds in Water 107

Strong and Weak Electrolytes 108

Molecular Compounds in Water 108

4.2 Precipitation Reactions 109

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 110

Exchange(Metathesis) Reactions 111

Ionic Equations 112

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 114

Acids 114

Bases 114

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 114

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 115

Neutralization Reactions and Salts 117

Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formation 119

Oxidation and Reduction 120

Chemistry at Work Antacids 120

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 120

Oxidation Numbers 121

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts 122

The Activity Series 124

4.5 Concentrations of Solutions 126

A Closer Look The Aura of Gold 126

Molarity 127

Strategies in Chemistry Analyzing Chemical Reactions 127

Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte 128

Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume 129

Dilution 130

4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis 131

Titrations 133

Summary and Key Terms 136

Exercises 137

eMedia Exercises 143

5 Thermochemistry 145

5.1 The Nature of Energy 145

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 146

Units of Energy 147

System and Surroundings 147

Transferring Energy: Work and Heat 147

5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 149

Internal Energy 149

Relating △E to Heat and Work 150

Endothermic and Exothermic Processes 151

State Functions 152

5.3 Enthalpy 153

A Closer Look Energy Ethalpy and P-V Work 154

5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction 155

5.5 Calorimetry 158

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 158

Strategies in Chemistry Using Entgalpy as a Guide 158

Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 160

Bomb Calorimetry(Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 161

Chemistry and Life The Regulation of Human Body Temperature 162

5.6 Hess s Law 164

5.7 Enthalpies of Formation 166

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 168

5.8 Foods and Fuels 170

Foods 170

Fuels 172

Other Energy Sources 173

Chemistry at Work Hydrogen as a fuel 174

Summary and Key Terms 176

Exercises 177

eMedia Exercises 185

6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 187

6.1 The Wave Nature of Light 187

6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons 190

The Photoelectric Effect 191

Chemistry and Life The Health Effects of Low-Frequency EMFs:A Current Scientific Controversy 193

Line Spectra 194

6.3 Bohr s Model of the Hydrogen Atom 194

Bohr s Model 195

6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter 198

The Uncertainty Principle 199

A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 200

6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic orbitais 200

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 201

6.6 Representations of Orbitals 203

The s Orbitals 204

The p Orbitals 205

The d and f Orbitals 205

6.7 Orbitals in Many-Electron Atoms 206

Effective Nuclear Charge 206

Energies of Orbitals 207

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 208

6.8 Electron Configurations 209

A Closer Look Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 209

Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 210

Periods 1, 2, and 3 211

Period 4 and Beyond 213

6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 214

Summary and Key Terms 218

Exercises 220

eMedia Exercises 225

7 Periodic Pro erties of the Elements 227

7.1 Development of the Periodic Table 227

Electron Shells in Atoms 229

7.2 Electron Shells and the Sizes of Atoms 229

Atomic Sizes 230

7.3 Ionization Energy 233

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies 234

7.4 Electron Affinities 236

7.5 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 238

Metals 239

Nonmetals 241

Metalloids 243

Chemistry and Life The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 247

7.6 Group Trends for the Active Metals*243++Hydrogen 248

Group 6A: The Oxygen Group 248

Group 7A: The Halogens 250

Chemistry and Life Thermophilic Bacteria 251

Group 8A: The Noble Gases 251

Summary and Key Terms 253

Exercises 254

eMedia Exercises 259

8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 261

8.1 Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule 261

Lewis Symbols 262

The Octet Rule 263

8.2 Ionic Bonding 263

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 264

Electron Configuration of Ions of the Representative Elements 266

A Closer Look Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born-Haber Cycle 267

Transition-Metal Ions 268

8.3 Sizes of Ions 269

Polyatomic Ions 269

Lewis Structures 271

Multiple Bonds 272

8.5 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 273

Electronegativity 273

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 274

Dipole Moments 275

Bond Types and Nomenclature 277

8.6 Drawing Lewis Structures 278

Formal Charge 280

A Closer Look Oxidation Numbers formal Charges and Partial Charges 282

8.7 Resonance Structures 283

Resonance in Benzene 284

8.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 285

Odd Number of Electrons 285

Less than an Octet 285

More than an Octet 286

8.9 Strengths of Covalent Bonds 288

Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 289

Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length 291

Chemistry at Work Explosives and Afred Nobel 292

Summary and Key Terms 294

Exercises 295

eMedia Exercises 301

9 Molecular Geometry and BondingTheories 303

9.1 Molecular Shapes 304

9.2 TheVSEPR Model 304

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles 310

Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells 311

Molecules with More than One Central Atom 313

9.3 Polarity of Polyatomic Molecules 315

9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap 317

sp Hybrid Orbitals 318

9.5 Hybrid Orbitals 318

sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 320

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals 322

Summary 322

9.6 Multiple Bonds 324

Delocalized л Bonding 327

Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision 328

General Conclusions 330

9.7 Molecular Orbitals 331

The Hydrogen Molecule 331

Bond Order 333

9.8 Second-Row Diatomic Molecules 334

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 334

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 335

Electron Configurations for B2 Through Ne2 336

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 338

Chemistry at Work Organic Dyes 342

Summary and Key Terms 343

Exercises 344

eMedia Exercises 351

10 Gases 353

10.1 Characteristics of Gases 353

10.2 Pressure 354

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 355

Pressures of Enclosed Gases and Manometers 356

10.3 The Gas Laws 358

The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle s Law 358

Chemistry and Life Blood Pressure 358

The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles s Law 360

The Quantity-Volume Relationship:Avogadro s Law 361

10.4 The Ideal-Gas Equation 362

Strategies in Chemistry Calculations Involving Many Variables 364

Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 365

Gas Densities and Molar Mass 367

10.5 Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation 367

Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 368

10.6 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures 369

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 370

Collecting Gases over Water 371

10.7 Kinetic-Molecular Theory 373

Application to the Gas Laws 374

A Closer Look The Ideal-Gas Equation 375

10.8 Molecular Effusion and Diffusion 376

Graham s Law of Effusion 377

Diffusion and Mean Free Path 378

Chemistry at Work Gas Separations 379

10.9 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 379

The van der Waals Equation 381

Summary and Key Terms 383

Exercises 384

eMedia Exercises 391

11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 393

11.1 A Molecular Comparison of Liquids and Solids 393

11.2 Intermolecular Forces 395

Ion-Dipole Forces 396

Dipole-Dipole Forces 396

London Dispersion Forces 397

Hydrogen Bonding 399

A Closer Look Trends in Hydrogen Bonding 400

Comparing Intermolecular Forces 402

Viscosity 404

Surface Tension 404

11.3 Some Properties of Liquids 404

11.4 Phase Changes 405

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes 406

Heating Curves 406

Critical Temperature and Pressure 408

Chemistry at Work Supercritical Fluid Extraction 409

11.5 Vapor Pressure 409

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 410

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level 410

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 411

11.6 Phase Diagrams 412

A Closer Look The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 412

The Phase Diagrams of H20 and CO2 413

11.7 Structures of Solids 414

Unit Cells 416

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride 417

Close Packing of Spheres 419

A Closer Look X-ray Diffraction by Crystals 420

11.8 Bonding in Solids 421

Molecular Solids 421

Covalent-Network Solids 422

Ionic Solids 423

A Closer Look Buckyball 424

Metallic Solids 425

Summary and Key Terms 426

Exercises 427

eMedia Exercises 433

12 Modern Materials 435

12.1 Liquid Crystals 436

Types of Liquid-Crystalline Phases 437

12.2 Polymers 440

Addition Polymerization 441

Chemistry at Work Liquid Crystal Displays 441

Condensation Polymerization 442

Chemistry at Work Recycling Plastics 444

Types of Polymers 444

Structures and Physical Properties of Polymers 444

Cross-linking Polymers 446

Chemistry at Work KevlarTM an Advanced Material 447

12.3 Biomaterials 449

Characteristics of Biomaterials 449

Polymeric Biomaterials 450

Examples of Biomaterial Applications 451

12.4 Ceramics 454

Processing of Ceramics 455

Ceramic Composites 456

Applications of Ceramics 456

Superconducting Ceramics 457

12.5 Thin Films 459

Uses of Thin Films 459

Formation of Thin Films 460

Chemistry at Work Diamond Coatings 462

Summary and Key Terms 462

Exercises 463

eMedia Exercises 467

13 properties of Solutions 469

13.1 The Solution Process 469

Energy Changes and Solution Formation 471

Solution Formation,Spontaneity, and Disorder 472

Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions 473

13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility 474

A Closer Look Hydrates 474

13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 476

Solute-Solvent Interactions 476

Chemistry and Life Fat-and Water-Soluble Vitamins 478

Pressure Effects 479

Temperature Effects 480

Chemistry and Life Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 481

13.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 482

Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb 482

Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality 483

Conversion of Concentration Units 485

13.5 Colligative Properties 486

Lowering the Vapor Pressure 487

A Closer Look Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components 488

Boiling-Point Elevation 489

Freezing-Point Depression 490

Osmosis 492

Determination of Molar Mass 493

A Closer Look Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 494

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 496

13.6 Colloids 496

Chemistry and Life Sickle-Cell Anemia 498

Removal of Colloidal Particles 499

Summary and Key Terms 500

Exercises 501

eMedia Exercises 507

14 Chemical Kinetics 509

14.1 Reaction Rates 510

Rates in Terms of Concentrations 512

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 514

14.2 The Dependence of Rate on Concentration 515

Reaction Order 517

Units of Rate Constants 517

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 518

14.3 The Change of Concentration with Time 519

First-Order Reactions 520

Half-life 521

Second-Order Reactions 523

Chemistry at Work Methyl Brornide in the Atmosphere 524

14.4 Temperature and Rate 525

The Collision Model 526

Activation Energy 527

The Orientation Factor 529

The Arrhenius Equation 529

14.5 Reaction Mechanisms 532

Elementary Steps 532

Multistep Mechanisms 533

Rate Laws of Elementary Steps 534

Rate Laws of Multistep Mechanisms 535

Mechanisms with an Initial Fast Step 537

14.6 Catalysis 539

Homogeneous Catalysis 539

Heterogeneous Catalysis 540

Chemistry at Work Catalytic Converters 542

Enzymes 543

Chemistry and Life Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 545

Summary and Key Terms 548

Exercises 549

eMedia Exercises 557

15 Chemical Equilibrium 559

15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium 560

Chemistry at Work The Haber Process 562

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 562

Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure 566

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 567

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K 567

15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria 568

15.4 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 570

15.5 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 572

Predicting the Direction of Reaction 573

Calculation of Equilibrium Concentrations 574

15.6 Le Chatelier s Principle 576

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations 576

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 577

Effect of Temperature Changes 579

The Effect of Catalysts 582

Summary and Key Terms 584

Chemistry at Work Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 584

Exercises 585

eMedia Exercises 591

16.1 Acids and Bases: A Brief Review 593

16 Acid-Base Equilibria 593

16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 594

The H+ Ion in Water 594

Proton-Transfer Reactions 595

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 596

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 597

16.3 The Autoionization of Water 599

The Ion Product of Water 599

16.4 The pH Scale 601

Other p Scales 603

Measuring pH 604

Strong Bases 605

Strong Acids 605

16.5 Strong Acids and Bases 605

16.6 Weak Acids 606

Calculating Ka from pH 607

Using Ka to Calculate pH 609

Polyprotic Acids 613

16.7 Weak Bases 615

Types of Weak Bases 617

16.8 Relationship Between Ka and Kb 618

Chemistry at Work Arnines and Arnine Hydrochlorides 619

16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 621

16.10 Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure 623

Oxyacids 624

Binary Acids 624

Factors That Affect Acid Strength 624

Carboxylic Acids 627

16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 627

Chemistry and Life The Arnphoteric Behavior of Arnino Acids 628

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions 629

Summary and Key Terms 632

Exercises 633

eMedia Exercises 639

17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 641

17.1 The Common-Ion Effect 641

17.2 Buffered Solutions 644

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 644

Buffer Capacity and pH 646

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers 648

17.3 Acid-Base Titrations 650

Chemistry and Life Blood as a Buffered Solution 651

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations 652

Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations 655

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 659

17.4 Solubility Equilibria 659

The Solubility-Product Constant, KSP 660

Solubility and KSp 661

17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility 662

Common-lon Effect 663

A Closer Look Limitations of Solubility Products 663

Solubility and pH 665

Formation of Complex Ions 666

Chemistry and Life Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 666

Amphoterism 668

17.6 Precipitation and Separation of Ions 669

Selective Precipitation of Ions 670

17.7 Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements 671

Summary and Key Terms 675

Exercises 675

eMedia Exercises 681

18 Chemistry of the Environment 683

18.1 Earth s Atmosphere 683

Composition of the Atmosphere 685

Photodissociation 686

18.2 The Outer Regions of the Atmosphere 686

Photoionization 687

18.3 Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere 688

Depletion of the Ozone Layer 690

18.4 Chemistry of the Troposphere 691

A Closer Look Stratospheric Clouds and Ozone Depletion 692

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 693

Carbon Monoxide 694

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 696

Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 697

18.5 The World Ocean 699

Seawater 699

Desalination 700

18.6 Freshwater 701

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 702

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 703

A Closer Look Water Softening 703

Summary and KeyTerms 705

Exercises 706

eMedia Exercises 710

19 Chemical Thermodynamics 713

19.1 Spontaneous Processes 714

Reversible and Irreversible Processes 716

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 717

The Spontaneous Expansion of a Gas 718

Entropy 719

The Second Law of Thermodynamics 722

Chemistry and Life Entropy and Life 724

19.3 The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy 724

A Closer Look Entropy Disorder and Ludwig Boltzmann 726

19.4 Calculation of Entropy Changes 729

19.5 Gibbs Free Energy 730

Standard Free-Energy Changes 731

A Closer Look What s Free About Free Energy? 732

19.6 Free Energy and Temperature 734

19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 737

Chemistry and Life Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 739

Summary and Key Terms 741

Exercises 742

eMedia Exercises 749

20 Electrochemistry 751

20.1 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 752

20.2 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 753

Half-Reactions 754

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 754

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 757

20.3 Voltaic Cells 758

A Molecular View of Electrode Processes 761

20.4 Cell EMF 762

Standard Reduction Potentials 764

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 768

20.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions 770

EMF and Free-Energy Change 771

20.6 Effect of Concentration on Cell EMF 773

The Nernst Equation 773

Concentration Cells 775

Cell EMF and Chemical Equilibrium 777

Chemistry and Life Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 778

20.7 Batteries 779

Lead-Acid Battery 780

Alkaline Battery 781

Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-lon Batteries 781

20.8 Corrosion 782

Fuel Cells 782

Preventing the Corrosion of Iron 783

Corrosion of Iron 783

20.9 Electrolysis 785

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 786

Electrolysis with Active Electrodes 788

Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 789

Electrical Work 791

Summary and Key Terms 793

Exercises 794

eMedia Exercises 803

21.1 Radioactivity 805

21 Nuclear Chemistry 805

Nuclear Equations 806

Types of Radioactive Decay 807

21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability 809

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 809

Radioactive Series 811

further Observations 812

21.3 Nuclear Transmutations 812

Using Charged Particles 813

Using Neutrons 814

Transuranium Elements 814

21.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay 815

Dating 816

Calculations Based on Half-life 817

21.5 Detection of Radioactivity 819

Radiotracers 820

21.6 Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions 820

Chemistry and Life Medical Applications of RadJotracers 821

Nuclear Binding Energies 822

21.7 Nuclear Fission 824

A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 826

Nuclear Reactors 826

21.8 Nuclear Fusion 828

21.9 Biological Effects of Radiation 829

Radiation Doses 830

Radon 831

Chemistry and Life Radiation Therapy 832

Summary and Key Terms 834

Exercises 835

eMedia Exercises 839

22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 841

22.1 General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions 841

Chemical Reactions 843

22.2 Hydrogen 844

Isotopes of Hydrogen 845

Properties of Hydrogen 845

Preparation of Hydrogen 846

Binary Hydrogen Compounds 847

Uses of Hydrogen 847

22.3 Group 8A:The Noble Gases 848

Noble-Gas Compounds 849

22.4 Group 7A: The Halogens 850

Properties and Preparation of the Halogens 851

Uses of the Halogens 852

The Hydrogen Halides 853

Interhalogen Compounds 854

Oxyacids and Oxyanions 855

22.5 Oxygen 856

Properties of Oxygen 856

Preparation of Oxygen 856

Ozone 857

Uses of Oxygen 857

Oxides 858

Peroxides and Superoxides 859

22.6 The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po 860

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 860

Occurrences and Preparation of S, Se, and Te 861

Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 862

Sulfides 863

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur 863

22.7 Nitrogen 865

Properties of Nitrogen 865

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen 866

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 867

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 868

22.8 The Other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb, and Bi 870

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements 870

Chemistry and Life Nitrites in Food 870

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus 871

Phosphorus Halides 872

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 872

22.9 Carbon 875

Elemental Forms of Carbon 876

Oxides of Carbon 876

Chemistry at Work Carbon Fibers and Composites 877

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 879

Carbides 880

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon 880

22.10 The Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb 881

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 881

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 882

Silicates 882

Glass 884

Silicones 885

22.11 Boron 885

Summary and Key Terms 887

Exercises 889

eMedia Exercises 894

23.1 Occurrence and Distribution of Metals 897

23 Metals and Metallurgy 897

Minerals 898

Metallurgy 899

23.2 Pyrometallurgy 900

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron 901

Formation of Steel 902

23.3 Hydrometallurgy 903

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum 904

23.4 Electrometallurgy 904

Electrometallurgy of Sodium 905

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 905

Electrorefining of Copper 906

A Closer Look Charles M. Hall 907

Physical Properties of Metals 908

23.5 Metallic Bonding 908

Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding 909

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals 910

A Closer Look Insulators and Semiconductors 911

23.6 Alloys 912

Intermetallic Compounds 914

23.7 Transition Metals 914

A Closer Look Shape Memory Alloys 915

Physical Properties 916

Electron Configurations and Oxidation States 917

Magnetism 919

Chromium 920

Iron 920

23.8 Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals 920

Copper 921

Summary and Key Terms 922

Exercises 923

eMedia Exercises 927

24 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 929

24.1 The Structure of Complexes 929

Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries 931

24.2 Chelates 933

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 934

Nomenclature 936

A Closer Look The Stability of Chelates 937

Chemistry and Life The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 938

24.3 Isomerism 940

Structural Isomerism 941

Stereoisomerism 941

24.4 Color and Magnetism 944

Color 944

Magnetism 946

24.5 Crystal-Field Theory 946

A Closer Look Gemstones 948

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 951

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 952

Summary and Key Terms 954

Exercises 955

eMedia Exercises 959

25 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemist 961

Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Substances 962

The Stabilities of Organic Substances 962

The Shapes of Organic Molecules 962

25.1 A Look Back 962

25.2 Introduction to Hydrocarbons 963

25.3 Alkanes 964

Structures of Alkanes 965

Structural Isomers 966

Nomenclature of Alkanes 966

Cycloalkanes 969

Reactions of Alkanes 969

Chemistry at Work Gasoline 970

AIkenes 971

25.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 971

Alkynes 973

Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes 974

Chemistry at Work The Accidental Discovery of TeflonTM 975

Mechanism of Addition Reactions 976

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 977

A Closer Look Aromatic Stabilization 978

25.5 Functional Groups; Alcohols and Ethers 979

Alcohols (R—OH) 979

25.6 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group 982

Aldehydes 982

Ethers(R—O—R ) 982

Carboxylic Acids 983

Esters 985

Amines and Amides 986

25.7 Chirality in Organic Chemistry 987

25.8 Introduction to Biochemistry 989

25.9 Proteins 989

Amino Acids 990

Chemistry and Life The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems 991

Polypeptides and Proteins 991

Protein Structure 993

25.10 Carbohydrates 995

Disaccharides 996

Polysaccharides 997

25.11 Nucleic Acids 999

Strategies in Chemistry What Now? 1001

Summary and Key Terms 1003

Exercises 1005

eMedia Exercises 1011

Appendices 1012

A Mathematical Operations 1012

B Properties of Water 1018

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15K(25℃) 1019

D Aqueous-Equilibrium Constants 1022

E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25℃ 1024