INTERNATIONAL LAW AS APPLIED BY INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS VOLUME IIPDF电子书下载

INTRODUCTION 1

Why Study the Laws of War? 1

PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS 9

1. FUNCTIONS AND FOUNDATIONS OF THE LAWS OF WAR 9

1. Functions of the Laws of War 9

2. Legal Foundations of the Laws of War 14

2. THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-DEFENCE 28

1. The Meaning of Self-Defence 28

2. Verification of the Exercise of Self-Defence 29

3. Self-Defence and Necessity 30

4. Putative Self-Defence 31

5. The Scope of the Right of Self-Defence 32

6. The Test of the Lawful Exercise of Self-Defence 33

3. LEGAL AND ILLEGAL USES OF FORCE 37

1. Pre-1914 International Law and Jus ad Bellum 37

2. Pre-1914 International Law and Compulsory MeasuresShort of War 38

3. The Impact of the Kellogg Pact on Jus ad Bellum 45

4. The Impact of the Kellogg Pact on Compulsory Measures Short of War 48

5. The Quasi-Order of the United Nations and the Legality of the Resort to Force 50

4. WAR AND STATE OF WAR 59

1. International Judicial Practice 59

2. War and State of War 60

3. Uses of the Distinction 61

5. LEGAL EFFECTS OF WAR:Ⅰ—RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES 63

1. Temporal Scope 65

2. Territorial Scope 67

3. Functional Scope 70

6. LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅡ—RELATIONS BETWEEN BELLIGERENT STATES AND ENEMY NATIONALS 75

1. In Search of the Limiting Rule 76

2. The Pattern of the 1919-21 Peace Treaties 84

3. The Post-1945 Settlements 88

7. LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅢ—PRIVATE RELATIONS 90

1. The Governing Rules 90

2. International Judicial Practice 92

8. LEGAL EFFECTS OF WARⅣ—ILLEGAL WAR 96

1. The Problem in the Perspective of the Fundamental Principles of International Law 96

2. The Problem in Intern ational Judicial Practice 100

3. Tentative Rules 105

PART TWO THE LAW OF LAND WARFARE 105

9. SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THE LAW OF LAND WARFAREⅠ—THE STANDARD OF CIVILISATION 109

1. The Distinction between Combatants and Non-Combatants 110

2. The Distinction between Members of Armed Forces and Civilians and between Lawful and Unlawful Combatants 115

3. The Law relating to Prisoners of War 117

10. SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THE LAW OF LAND WARFAREⅡ—THE NECESSITIES OF WAR 128

1. Necessity and Necessities of War 128

2. International Judicial Practice 130

3. Evaluation 135

PART THREE THE LAW OF AIR WARFARE 139

11. THE LAW OF AIR WARFARE AND THE TREND TOWARDS TOTAL WAR 139

1. The “ Autonomy " of Air Warfare and the Law of Air Warfare 139

2. The Governing Rules 141

3. The Trend towards Total War 150

PART FOUR THE LAW OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION 163

12. BASIC ISSUES 163

1. Legal Foundations 163

2. The Prohibition of Wartime Annexation 166

3. The Territorial and Temporal Scope of the Law of Belligerent Occupation 174

4. Functions of the Law of Belligerent Occupation 177

13. THE GOVERNMENT OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES:Ⅰ—THE MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC ORDER 179

1. The Restoration and Maintenance of Public Order 180

2. Immunity of the Occupying Power from the Local Law 183

14. THE GOVERNMENT OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIESⅡ—LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS 191

1. Legislative Powers of the Belligerent Occupant 191

2. Legislative Powers of the Disseised Sovereign 196

3. Administration of the Occupied Territory 207

15. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTS:Ⅰ—INTERFERENCE WITH LIFE AND LIMB 211

1. The Scheme of the Hague and Geneva Conventions 211

2. Terrorisation 213

3. Extermination 214

4. Denationalisation 216

5. Ill-Treatment 218

16. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTSⅡ—INTERFERENCE WITH FREEDOM 220

1. Detention and Internment 220

2. Compulsory Labour 224

3. Deportation 227

17. THE PROTECTION OF PERSONAL RIGHTSⅢ—HOSTAGES 234

1. The Rules in Historical Perspective 234

2. Legal Basis 236

3. International Judicial Practice 239

4. The Geneva Codification of 1949 241

18. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅠ—THE HAGUE PATTERN 243

1. The Formative Factors 243

2. Property Immune from Destruction and Seizure 244

3. The Protection of Private Property 245

4. The Protection of State Property 247

19. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅡ—THE IMPACT OF TOTAL WAR 249

1. State-Organised Exploitation 249

2. General Devastation 254

20. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅢ—THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC PROPERTY 259

1. The Rousseau-Portalis Doctrine 259

2. International Judicial Practice 260

21. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS Ⅳ—THE PROHIBITION OF THE CONFISCATION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY 266

22. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSV—THE REQUISITION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY 268

1. The Scope of Lawful Requisition 268

2. The Conditions of Lawful Requisition 269

3. Legal Effects 274

4. Legal Characteristics of Requisition 284

23. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅥ—THE SEIZURE OF PRIVATE PROPERTY 289

1. Two Model Decisions 289

2. Seizure and Requisition 291

3. Seizure under Articles 23 （g） and 53 （2） of the Hague Regulations 292

4. Legal Effects 294

5. Seizable Property 296

6. The Rules Governing Seizure 307

24. THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTSⅦ—PUBLIC PROPERTY 308

1. Doubtful Ownership 308

2. Movable Public Property 310

3. Immovable Public Property 311

4. The Destruction of Public Enemy Property 313

25. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅰ—PERSPECTIVES 316

1. The Significance of the Laws of War in the Wider Sense 316

2. The De Facto Element in Belligerent Occupation 321

26. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅱ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Personae OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE 325

1. The Status of Irregular Forces 325

2. Legal Basis of the Relations between the Occupying Power and the Civilian Population 327

27. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅲ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Loci OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE 330

1. The Meanings of Extraterritorial Effects of Belligerent Occupation 330

2. Extraterritorial Effects of the Peacetime Exercise of Territorial Jurisdiction 331

3. International Judicial Practice 337

28. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION Ⅳ—IMPLICATIONS Ratione Temporis OF THE EFFECTIVITY RULE 342

1. The Transition from Territorial Sovereignty to Belligerent Occupation 342

2. The “ Principle " of Subrogation 343

3. The Transition from Belligerent Occupation to Territorial Sovereignty 346

4. Apparently Related Situations 348

29. THE LEGAL CHARACTER OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION V—RECENT TRENDS 349

1. Developments in the Substantive Law 349

2. Developments in Legal Machinery 351

3. Evaluation 355

PART FIVE THE LAW OF SEA WARFARE 355

30. THE LAW OF SEA WARFARE ESSENTIALS 361

1. The Function of Sea Warfare 363

2. The Equilibrium between the Formative Factors 363

3. Prize Law: Basic Rules 365

4. The Areas of Sea Warfare 368

31. ACTIVE COMBATANTS 373

1. Potential Tests 373

2. Tests Applied in the Law of Peace 373

3. The Rules Governing the Test 374

4. Legal Significance of the Test 378

32. OBJECTS OF SEA WARFAREⅠ—ENEMY NAVAL AND UNARMED MERCHANT SHIPS 379

1. Enemy Naval Ships 379

2. Enemy Merchant Ships 384

33. OBJECTS OF SEA WARFAREⅡ—ARMED ENEMY MERCHANT SHIPS ENEMY MERCHANT SHIPS IN CONVOY AND NEUTRAL MERCHANT SHIPS ASSIMILATED TO ENEMY SHIPS 390

1. Armed Enemy Merchant Ships 390

2. Enemy Merchant Ships in Convoy 394

34. OBJECTS OF SEA WARFARE Ⅲ—LAND TARGETS 403

1. The Governing Rules of International Customary Law 403

2. Treaty Law 407

35. OBJECTS OF SEA WARFARE Ⅳ—SUBMARINE CABLES 409

1. Treaty Law 409

2. The Operative Rules 410

3. International Judicial Practice 412

36. FORMS OF SEA WARFARE 416

1. Mines and Torpedoes 416

2. Submarines 424

37. RECENT TRENDS 425

1. Lawful Combatants 425

2. Objects of Sea Warfare 429

3. The Forms of Sea Warfare 432

4. Humanitarian Aspects 433

PART SIX ENFORCEME NT OF THE RULES OF WARFARE 443

38. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY IN TIME OF WAR 443

1. Nineteenth-Century Case-Law and Codification 443

2. Hague Convention ⅣV of 1907 448

3. The Impact of a State of War on International Responsibility 450

4. Recent Developments 455

39. THE BREISACH TRIAL OF 1474 462

1. The Historical Background 462

2. Organisation of the Tribunal 463

3. The Law Applied by the Tribunal 464

40. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅰ—LEGAL BASIS AND ORGANISATION 467

1. Legal Basis 467

2. Organisation 468

41. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅱ—WAR CRIMES AND CRIMES AGAINST PEACE 478

1. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters 479

2. War Crimes in the Strict Sense 483

3. Crimes against Peace 485

42. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅲ—CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY, MULTIPLE CRIMES AND CRIMINAL ORGANISATIONS 496

1. Crimes against Humanity 496

2. Multiple Crimes 499

3. Criminal Organisations 502

43. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS Ⅳ—DEFENCES 507

1. Challenges to Jurisdiction 507

2. Grounds of Justification 509

3. Grounds Excluding or Mitigating Guilt 520

44. THE NUREMBERG AND TOKYO TRIALS V—THE IMPACT ON INTERNATIONAL LAW 524

1. Elaboration and Implementation of the Nuremberg Principles 525

2. Humanitarian Law-Making at Geneva 540

3. The Nuremberg and Geneva Patterns in Perspective 544

PART SEVEN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITY 544

45. FUNDAMENTALS:Ⅰ—THE BASIC RULES—THE DUTIES OF ABSTENTION AND IMPARTIALITY 549

1. The Basic Rules 549

2. The Duties of Abstention and Impartiality 550

46. FUNDAMENTALS:Ⅱ—NEUTRAL TERRITORY—RESPECT FOR NEUTRAL RIGHTS—NEUTRAL STATUS—BREACHES OF NEUTRALITY 562

1. Neutral Territory as a Base of Hostile Operations 562

2. Respect for Neutral Rights 565

3. Neutral Status 573

4. Breaches of Neutrality 576

47. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN LAND WARFARE 582

1. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Theatres of War 582

2. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Occupied Territories 584

3. The Position of Neutral Nationals and Property in Territories of Belligerents 586

48. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY INSEA WARFARE:Ⅰ—FUNDAMENTALS 592

1. The Paris Declaration of 1856 592

2. Stoppage, Visit and Search 595

3. Seizure and Capture 597

4. The Destruction of Neutral Prize 600

49. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅱ—PRIZE COURTS 604

1. The Basic Rule 604

2. The Character of Prize Courts 604

3. “ Probable Cause " 606

4. Damages 608

5. The Finality of Judgments in Prize 608

6. International Responsibility 610

50. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅲ—ASSISTANCE TO THE ENEMY: CONTRABAND 616

1. Meaning 616

2. Ratio Legis 618

3. The First Element of Contraband: Usefulness for War Purposes 619

4. The Second Element of Contraband: Enemy Destination 621

51. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY IN SEA WARFARE:Ⅳ—OTHER FORMS OF ASSISTANCE TO THE ENEMY 624

1. Acts Assimilated to Contraband Trade 624

2. Blockade-Running 626

52. THE POSITION OF NEUTRAL NATIONALS AND PROPERTY INSEA WARFARE:V—THE LAW OF ANGARY 635

1. Evolution of the Law of Angary 635

2. Essentials 636

3. Related Legal Institutions 638

53. RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITY:Ⅰ—REPRISALS 644

1. Belligerent Reprisals and Neutral Powers 644

2. The Effects of Reprisals on the Law of Neutrality 646

3. Evaluation 650

54. RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITYⅡ—THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL CHANGE 654

1. A Comparable Issue 654

2. Another Lesson 655

3. The Elasticity of the Law of Neutrality 656

55. RECENT TRENDS IN THE LAW OF NEUTRALITYⅢ—CODIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT 661

1. Codification 661

2. Development 664

PART EIGHTINTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT 673

56. THE RELATIVITY OF INTERNATIONAL AND INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT 673

1. Terminology 673

2. Synopsis 674

57. THE GOVERNING RULESI—SOVEREIGNTY 679

1. Applicability of the Laws of War 679

2. The Impact of Co-Existen 681

3. The Rules of Sovereignty as Applied to InternalArmed Conflict 688

58. THE GOVERNING RULES:Ⅱ—RECOGNITION 689

1. The Impact of the Scale and Duration of Internal War 689

2. Recognition of Belligerency 690

59. THE GOVERNING RULES:Ⅲ—INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILY 696

1. The Basic Distinction 696

2. Two Kinds of Law? 698

60. THE GOVERNING RULESⅣ—THE FREEDOM OF THE SEAS—GOOD FATH 703

1. The Freedom of the Seas 703

2. Good Faith 705

61. THE GOVERNING RULESV—THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSENT 713

1. Modification 713

2. Codification 714

3. Development 716

PART NINE THE TERMINATION OF ARMED CONFLICTS 723

62. THE RELATIVITY OF WAR AND PEACE 723

1. Lessons of the Past 724

2. Armistice Conventions 725

63. PEACE TREATIESⅠ—FUNCTIONS AND LEGAL EFFECTS 730

1. Functions 731

2. Legal Effects 733

64. PEACE TREATIESⅡ—SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS 735

1. Pre-Eminence? 735

2. Inequality of the Parties? 736

3. Peace Treaties and General International Law 740

65. PEACE TREATIESⅢ—INTERPRETATION 744

1. Judicial Law-Making 744

2. Conditions of Judicial Law-Making 745

3. Softening the Law of Power 746

66. PEACE TREATIESⅣ—FROM WAR INDEMNITY TO REPARATION 758

1. The Pre-1914 Law 758

2. Indemnities of War 759

3. The Versailles Pattern 760

4. The Turning Point 762

5. The Post-1945 Settlements 762

6. The Reparation Systems of the Post-1945 Settlements 764

67. PEACE TREATIES V—RESTITUTION AND COMPENSATION 767

1. Allied Property, Rights and Interests in the Post-1945Settlements 768

2. Restitution 773

3. Compensation 778

4. The Challenge to Our Age 783

APPENDICES 787

1. Status of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907（September 1, 1967） 787

2. Status of the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949（September 1, 1967） 792

3. Status of the General Poison Gas Protocol of June 17,1925 （September 1, 1967） 794

Selected Bibliography 795

Index of Persons 857

Subject Index 865