The Organization of Cells and Other OrganismsPDF电子书下载

Ⅰ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS AND OTHER ORGANISMS 1

1．The cell concept:old causes célèbres 1

2．The unit of life confronted with bacterium and virus 4

3．The antithesis:structure and function 6

4．Catalysts and the general principles of their structure and mode of action 8

5．The structure of enzymes and the mechanism of enzyme catalysis 9

6．Chains of processes and the coupling of reactions 13

7．The reciprocal relationship between structure and activity 15

8．Some types of organisms 21

Ⅱ．THE ORGANIZATION OF VIRUSES 23

1．Introduction 23

2．The chemistry of viruses 25

3．The aggregation and crystallization of virus particles 28

4．The structure of virus particles 31

5．The structure of virus particles as revealed by the effects of radiation 36

6．Virus in action: 38

(a) Animal and plant viruses 38

(b) Bacteriophage 41

(ⅰ) The genetics of ＇phage 44

(ⅱ) Productive infection and lysogenesis 49

7．Macromolecular organization in viruses 50

Ⅲ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CERTAIN SCHIZOMYCETES 53

1．Eubacteriales: 53

(a) Bacterial genetics 53

(b) The killing of bacteria by radiation as a key to the genetic organization of the Eubacteriales 56

(c) Cytological evidence for the presence of a ＇nuclear＇ apparatus in bacteria 57

(d) A general picture of bacterial organization 61

(e) The chemical morphology of the bacterial surface 62

(ⅰ) The structural implications of Rough and Smooth forms 63

(ⅱ) Surface polysaccharide,surface protein,and surface lipid 63

(ⅲ) The significance of the Gram reaction 64

(ⅳ) The morphological significance of suspension stability 66

(ⅴ) The analysis of surface structure by the methods of immunology 67

(ⅵ) The evidence for enzymic activities in the plasma membrane 72

(ⅶ) The permeability of the capsule and the site of the osmotic barrier beneath the encapsulated surface 73

(ⅷ) The composition of bacterial cell walls 75

(ⅸ) The mechanical properties of the bacterial surface 76

(f) The structure of bacterial flagella and their relation to movement 77

(g) Aspects of growth,division,and colony formation 81

(h) Adaptation and mutation 85

(i) Transformation 88

(j) Macromolecular orglanization in bacteria 89

2．The morphology of the Spirochaetales in the light of macromolecular structure 92

Ⅳ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS 97

A．THE NUCLEUS 97

1．Introduction 97

2．The interphasic,interkinetic,＇resting＇,or non-mitotic nucleus: 101

(a) Introduction 101

(b) Mechanical and colloidal properties 104

(c) Chemical properties 106

(d) Optical properties 108

(e) The nucleolus 110

(f) The nuclear membrane 111

3．The Chromosomes: 113

(a) Optical properties 113

(b) Mechanical properties 113

(c) Chemical composition 116

(d) The constitution of the chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis 119

(e) The multiplication of chromosomes 124

4．The evidence for chromosomal activity 130

5．The movements of chromosomes (other than anaphase movement) 135

6．The role of the nucleus in cellular economy 137

7．The evolution of the genetic systems of eucells and the generation of the phenotype 146

Ⅴ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS 152

B．THE CYTOPLASM 152

Ⅰ．Bulk properties 152

1．The concept of protoplasm 152

2．The rheology of the cytoplasm and the notion of a framework 157

3．Regional differences in bulk cytoplasmic properties 164

4．Factors influencing cytoplasmic rigidity 166

5．Amoeboid movement and cytoplasmic streamng 169

6．Orientation in the cytoplasm 176

7．The chemical structure of the cytoplasm 178

8．The problem of the state of the cytoplasmic proteins 180

9．Cytoplasmic ribonucleoproteins 181

10．The mechanical fractionation of cytoplasmic particles 185

11．Vacuoles and vacuole formation 189

Ⅵ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS 194

B．THE CYTOPLASM 194

Ⅱ．Cytoplasmic particulates and membrane-systems 194

1．The structure and properties of mitochondria: 195

(a) Introduction 195

(b) Shape,movement,and behaviour in the living cell 195

(c) The transformation of isolated mitochondria and sarcosomes 197

(d) The gross chemistry of mitochondria and their lipoprotein nature 198

(e) Electron microscope studies of mitochondria 200

(f) The enzymic properties and organization of mitochondria in bulk 202

(ⅰ) Introduction 202

(ⅱ) The enzymic properties of mitochondria 202

(ⅲ) The electron transfer system 204

(ⅳ) The problem of spatial organization 204

(ⅴ) The role of phosphorylation 206

(ⅵ) Other activities of mitochondria in bulk 207

(g) The functions of mitochondria in intact cells 208

(h) The effects of swelling on the enzymic properties of mitochondria 210

2．The structure and organization of chloroplasts 212

3．The structure of pyrenoids 219

4．The structure of chromoplasts 220

5．The yolk platelets of Amphibia 220

6．Yolk spheres and the vitelline body or yolk nucleus 222

7．The Golgi region: 225

(a) The classical Golgi network and the results of electron microscopy 225

(b) A component of certain Golgi regions:the dictyosome,lepidosome,or lipochondrion,and supposed evidence of its secretory activity 227

(c) The chemical constitution of lipochondria in the Golgi region;of the Golgi region isolated in bulk;and of the acrosomic system 230

(d) In vitro artefacts from cytoplasmic fractions 232

(e) The ＇canal＇ theory of the structure of the Golgi region 234

(f) Chondriome and vacuome 235

(g) The coacervate analogy 236

(h) The postulated functions of the Golgi region 236

(i) Supposed homologues of the Golgi region in Eumetazoa,Parazoa,and Protista 237

8．Other cytoplasmic membrane systems 242

Ⅶ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS 245

B．THE CYTOPLASM 245

Ⅲ．Fibrillar cytoplasmic structure 245

1．Introduction 245

2．Polymerization and fibril formation: 246

(a) Theoretical considerations 246

(b) Tropomyosin and the role of electrostatic forces in linkage 248

(c) Actin and the role of metallic ions in linkage 248

(d) Myosin as a complex monomer 249

(e) Fibrinogen and the role of hydrogen bonds in lateral association 249

3．The initiation of orientation: 251

(a) The parallel with ionotropic gels 251

(b) Cell centres,centrospheres,centrioles,centrosomes,asters,and spindles 252

(ⅰ) The presence or absence of microscopic organites with genetic continuity 252

(ⅱ) Types of foci of orientation in the Protozoa,(α) Orthomitosis:mitosis with radial symmetry about the polar axis,(β) Pleuromitosis:mitosis with no symmetry about the polar axis 258

(ⅲ) The genesis of the achromatic figure in metazoan eucells 262

(ⅳ) The bulk isolation of the mitotic apparatus and the chemistry of orientation 266

(ⅴ) The contractility of the mitotic apparatus 267

(c) Blepharoplasts,basal granules,and kinetosomes 268

(ⅰ) The structure and generation of sperm tails 268

(ⅱ) Basal granules,basal corpuscles,kinetosomes,cilia,and flagella 272

(ⅲ) The movements of sperm tails,cilia,and flagella 274

4．Keratinization: 275

(a) The qualitative cytochemistry of keratinization 275

(b) The development of disulphide linkage,orientation,and longitudinal covalent linkage 277

(c) The synthesis of keratin by polymerization 278

(d) The shpe of keratinized cells and the orientation of the keratin chains 278

(e) The proteins of keratinized cells 279

(f) The building units of the keratins 280

(g) The historical significance of the molecular properties of α-keratin in the elucidation of protein morphology 283

5．Axon,axoplasm,and neurofibrils: 286

(a) Qualitative evidence of molecular orientation in the axon 286

(b) Quantitative studies of birefringence 287

(c) The composition of the axon 288

(d) Electron microscope studies of axon and axoplasm 289

(e) The mechanical properties of the axon and factors determining stability 289

(f) The evidence for textural change in the neuroplasm correlated with nervous activity 291

(g) The origin of orientation in the axoplasm 292

6．The organization of myofilaments and the architecture of muscle: 293

(a) The origin of fibrillar structure in usele cells in ontogeny 293

(b) The nature of striation and changes in it during stretching and contraction 296

(c) Birefringence and striation 302

(d) Large-,moderate-,and small-angle X-ray diagrams of muscle and the ordered state of the fibrillar muscle proteins 303

(e) Order,disorder,and contraction 305

Ⅷ．THE ORGANIZATION OF CELLS 308

C．THE CELL SURFACE AND CELL MEMBRANES 308

1．The cell surface: 309

(a) The results and implications of permeability studies 309

(b) The significance of the action of narcotics 313

(c) The mechanical properties of the surface and their significance 315

(d) The chemical and morphological significance of certain electrical properties of the surface 318

(e) Active transport and surface enzymes 320

(f) The morphological implications of electrical activity 324

(g) The optical analysis of cell surface structure and the evidence for surface expansion 327

(h) Electron microscope studies of cell membranes 332

(i) The antigenic structure of the cell surface 335

(j) Immunological reactions and the surface structure of gametes 338

2．Laminated membranes: 343

(a) The structure of the surface membranes of nerve fibres 343

(ⅰ) The myelinated sheath of vertebrate nerves and the metatropic sheath of the nerves of invertebrates 343

(ⅱ) The electron microscopy of the myelinated sheath of nerve 347

(b) The structure of the outer segment of the rod in the vertebrate retina 350

3．Cell walls and cell shape: 353

(a) Plant cell walls,and principally cellulose walls 354

(ⅰ) The middle lamella,primary wall,and secondary wall 355

(ⅱ) The primary wall 356

(ⅲ) The secondary wall 359

(ⅳ) The relationship between cell wall and cytoplasm 360

(ⅴ) Turgor and the mechanical properties of the cell wall of growing cells 361

(ⅵ) Types of plant cell growth 363

(b) Complexities of the wall and problems of helical symmetry in Euglenoidina 366

(c) The shape and molecular organization of cells with chitinous walls 370

(d) The mechanics and energetics of changes in cell shape 373

Ⅸ．EXTRACELLULAR MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE SPATIAL EXTENSION OF CELLULAR ACTIVITIES 379

1．Introduction 379

2．The structure of collagen and the properties of its solutions:a study in the analysis of extracellular building materials 382

3．The fibrogenesis of collagen in vivo as a type of procedure in extracellular architecture 386

4．Ground substances: 388

(a) Mucopolysaccharides and collagen 388

(b) The mesogloea of the Cnidaria,and the role of ectodermal mucoid in coral formation 390

5．Fibrillar collagens: 393

(a) Spongins in the Parazoa 393

(b) Corneins and gorgonins in the Cnidaria 395

(c) The byssus of the Lamellibranchiata 395

(d) Dermal fibrillar collagenous structures in the Arthropoda 396

(e) Collagenous materials and structures in the Vertebrata 397

(ⅰ) Reticulin 397

(ⅱ) Elastin 397

(ⅲ) Elastoidin 399

(ⅳ) Dentine and enamel in the teeth of Vertebrata 400

(α) Dentine 400

(β) Enamel 403

6．Collagen membranes and the architecture of fibrillar cuticles and basement membranes: 405

(a) Nematoda,Nemertea,and Annelida 405

(b) The basement membrane of the vertebrate epidermis 407

(c) The egg capsule of selachians 412

(d) Bone 412

7．Chitins: 417

(a) Cuticular chitins 418

(ⅰ) Cnidaria 418

(ⅱ) Nematoda 418

(ⅲ) Mollusca 418

(ⅳ) Brachiopoda,Annelida,and Onychophora 419

(ⅴ) Arthropoda 419

(b) The calcification of chitin 427

8．Celluloses and the integument of the Tunicata 430

9．The production of extracellular materials and the building of macroscopic organisms 433

Ⅹ．BECOMING MULTICELLULAR AS SEEN IN THE LIGHT OF CELL PROPERTIES 442

1．Introduction 442

2．Preliminary analysis: 443

(a) The life cycle of the Metazoa as an alternation of adhesive and non-adhesive cell states:cell cohesion as the unique prerequisite 443

(b) The role of the hyaloplasm in adhesion and the nature of the hyaloplasm 444

(c) The return of adhesive properties on fertilization 447

(d) Adhesion in aggregates of non-embryonic or late-embryonic cells 448

(e) The production of structural polysaccharides by the seaurchin egg 452

(f) Factors influencing the shape and size of multicellular aggregates 454

3．Historical interlude 458

4．The properties of the surface coat of the amphibian egg: 460

(a) General properties 460

(b) The behaviour of the surface coat when injured 461

(c) Surface movements simulating gastrulation 463

(d) The role of surface properties in maintaining the integrity of the amphibian morula 465

5．Gastrulation in the light of the properties of individual cells: 466

(a) Local surface contraction and changes in cell shape in amphibian eggs 466

(b) The generation of elastic force in the surface 468

(c) Complementary surface expansion as a factor in gastrulation 469

(d) The generation of local curvatures in epithelia in general 471

(e) The cellular basis of gastrulation in sea-urchin eggs 472

6．Cavities and the role of mucoproteins in their formation; 473

(a) The blastocoel of echinoderms 473

(b) The formation of cavities in Amphibia and other vertebrates 474

(c) Coeloms and mesohyl 475

7．Adhesion and affinity: 477

(a) The role of affinity in self-differentiation in amphibian development 477

(b) Changes in adhesional properties in other types of life history 481

8．Concerning germ layers 486

9．The temporal order of development 489

10．Cleavage as the cellulation of a regionally and superficially heterogeneous egg 493

11．Preformation and epigenesis 500

ENVOI 506

BIBLIOGRAPHY 511

INDEX 589