科研方法与论文撰写PDF电子书下载

Part One Understanding the Nature of Research 4

Chapter 1 Cultivating a Research Mind 4

1.1 Avoiding Errors of Reasoning 4

1.2 A Keen Observer 5

1.3 Without Taking Things for Granted 6

1.4 Staying Unbiased 8

1.5 Predicting Based on Sound Reasoning 9

1.6 Become a Systematic Organizer 10

Chapter 2 A Research in Broad Sense(One) 13

2.1 Traditional Modes of Knowledge Seeking 13

2.2 A Scientific Research 16

2.2.1 Definition 16

2.2.2 Its Process 18

2.3 Types of Research 23

2.3.1 Meta-analysis Approach 23

2.3.2 The Trend Study 26

2.3.3 Cohort Study 27

2.3.4 The Panel Study 28

2.3.5 Follow-up Study 29

2.3.6 Historical Research 30

2.4 Correlational Designs 31

Chapter 3 A Research in Broad Sense(Two) 35

3.1 Experimental Researches 35

3.1.1 The One Shot Case Study 35

3.1.2 One-group Pretest Posttest Design 36

3.1.3 Intact Group Design 36

3.2 True Experimental Designs 38

3.2.1 Posttest Only Control Group 38

3.2.2 Pretest Posttest Control Group Design 39

3.3 Quasi-experimental Design 40

3.3.1 The Nonequivalent Control Group Design 40

3.3.2 Time-series Design 41

3.4 Factorial Design 41

3.5 Examples of Application 43

Chapter 4 Elements of Research(One) 45

4.1 Concept 45

4.2 Definition 47

4.3 Variables 50

4.3.1 Types of Variables 50

4.3.2 Independent Variable 51

4.3.3 Dependent Variable 51

4.3.4 Moderator Variable 51

4.3.5 Control Variable 53

4.3.6 Intervening Variable 53

4.4 Hypothesis 54

Chapter 5 Elements of Research(Two) 58

5.1 Levels of Measurement 58

5.1.1 Nominal Scales 62

5.1.2 Ordinal Scale 63

5.1.3 Interval Scale 65

5.2 Validity 69

5.2.1 Content Validity 70

5.2.2 Empirical Validity 71

5.2.3 Predictive Validity 72

5.2.4 Construct Validity 74

5.3 Reliability 76

Chapter 6 Elements of Research(Three) 79

6.1 Comparison 79

6.2 Manipulation 80

6.3 Control 80

6.4 Extrinsic Factors 81

6.5 Intrinsic Factors 82

6.6 Matching 85

6.7 Randomization 86

6.8 Generalization 88

Part Two Conducting Research Work 93

Chapter 7 Deciding Focus 93

7.1 Developing Research Topics 93

7.1.1 Procedures 93

7.1.2 Sources of Topics 93

7.1.3 Narrowing Down a Topic 95

7.1.4 Characteristics of Good Topics 95

7.1.5 Stating Research Topics 97

7.2 Making a Schedule 98

7.3 Keeping Academic Integrity 100

7.3.1 Guidelines for Using Quotations 101

7.3.2 Acceptable Quoting Ways 102

7.3.3 Unacceptable Quoting Ways 103

7.4 Guidelines for Writing Paraphrase 104

7.4.1 Unacceptable Paraphrasing Way 105

7.4.2 Acceptable Paraphrasing Way 105

7.4.3 Comments 106

7.5 Guidelines for Writing Summary 106

7.5.1 Unacceptable Summary 107

7.5.2 Acceptable summary 107

7.5.3 Comments 107

Chapter 8 Reviewing Literature(One) 109

8.1 Using the Library 109

8.1.1 Using the Stacks 109

8.1.2 The Card Catalogue 110

8.2 Classification 111

8.2.1 Library of Congress Classification(U.S.A) 111

8.2.2 Library of China Classification 114

8.3 Using the Internet as Your Source 115

8.3.1 Searching for Information 115

8.3.2 General Search Engines 116

8.3.3 Some other Useful English Sites 118

8.3.4 Some Useful Chinese Sites 119

Chapter 9 Reviewing Literature(Two) 121

9.1 Handling Information 121

9.1.1 Summarizing and Maintaining Your Information 121

9.1.2 Cards for Abstracts 122

9.1.3 Cards for Critical Comments 123

9.1.4 Cards for Potential Use 123

9.1.5 Criteria for Evaluating Sources 123

9.2 Writing Literature Review 124

9.2.1 Things to Note 124

9.2.2 A Sample of Review Research 125

9.3 APA Writing Style 130

9.3.1 General Document Guidelines 131

9.3.2 Title Page 132

9.3.3 Abstract 132

9.3.4 Body 133

9.3.5 Text Citations 133

9.3.6 Quotations 136

9.3.7 References 136

9.3.8 Tables and Figures 139

9.3.9 Summary of Parts of Study Report in APA 139

Chapter 10 Qualitative Researches 141

10.1 Definition 141

10.2 Method 142

10.3 Common Pursuits by Qualitative Researchers 142

10.4 Qualitative Research Approaches 143

10.5 Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research 145

Chapter 11 Data Collecting(One) 148

11.1 Observations 148

11.1.1 Roles of Observation 148

11.1.2 Characteristics 152

11.2 Controlled Observations 157

11.3 Survey Research 157

11.3.1 Personal Interview 158

11.3.2 The Question 161

11.4 Impersonal Survey Methods 168

11.4.1 Mail Questionnaire 168

11.4.2 Telephone Surveys 170

11.5 Attitude Measurement 171

11.5.1 Arbitrary Scales 173

11.5.2 Thurstone Scales 175

11.5.3 Likert Scales 178

Chapter 12 Data Collecting(Two) 182

12.1 Unobtrusive Studies 182

12.1.1 Intent of Unobtrusive Measures 182

12.1.2 Physical Traces 184

12.1.3 Simple Observation 185

12.1.4 Archival Records 188

12.1.5 Public Records 189

12.1.6 Private Records 193

12.2 Content Analysis 198

12.3 Units and Categories 203

Chapter 13 Data Collecting(Three) 208

13.1 Questionnaire Design 208

13.1.1 Questions and Statements 209

13.1.2 Open-ended and Closed-ended Questions 209

13.1.3 Make Items Clear 211

13.1.4 Avoid Double-barreled Questions 212

13.1.5 Answerable to Respondents 213

13.1.6 Relevant Questions 214

13.1.7 Short Items Are Best 215

13.1.8 Avoid Negative Items 216

13.1.9 Biased Items and Terms 216

13.2 Questionnaire Construction 219

13.2.1 General Questionnaire Format 220

13.2.2 Formats for Respondents 221

13.2.3 Contingency Questions 223

13.2.4 Matrix Questions 226

13.2.5 Other Question Formats 228

13.2.6 Ordering Items in a Questionnaire 229

13.2.7 Instructions 231

13.2.8 Pretesting the Questionnaire 233

Chapter 14 Data Collecting(Four) 235

14.1 Sampling 235

14.1.1 The Knowledge of Sampling 237

14.1.2 Simple Random Sampling 238

14.1.3 Systematic Sampling 241

14.1.4 Stratified Sampling 243

14.2 Ensuring Sound Data 244

Chapter 15 Evaluating Research Study 245

15.1 Evaluating Research Study 245

15.2 Checklist 260

15.3 Overall Quality of a Research 263

Part Three Processing Data 269

Chapter 16 An Introduction to SPSS 269

16.1 Functional Parts 269

16.2 Data Editor Window 272

16.3 Data Input/Save/Printing 273

16.4 Chart Editor Window 275

16.5 Using Syntax Editor Window 277

16.6 Basic Steps in Data Analysis 283

16.6.1 Entering Numeric Data 286

16.6.2 Defining Data 287

16.6.3 Copying and Pasting Variable Attributes 288

16.6.4 Reading Files 289

16.6.5 Transforming Data Values 292

16.6.6 Distributed Analysis 293

16.6.7 Sharing Data File in Local Computer 295

16.6.8 Selecting a Procedure 296

16.6.9 Pivoting a Table 298

16.7 Creating a Chart 304

16.8 Customizing 312

16.9 Creating scripts 315

Chapter 17 Statistics(One) 318

17.1 The Concept of Statistics 318

17.1.1 Descriptive Statistics 319

17.1.2 Inferential Statistics 320

17.1.3 Prediction 321

17.1.4 Parametric Versus Nonparametric Statistics 322

17.2 Tabulation 323

17.3 Frequency 324

17.3.1 Ungrouped Data 325

17.3.2 Grouped Data 326

17.3.3 Class Limits 328

17.3.4 Cumulative and Relative Frequencies 329

17.3.5 Bivariate Frequency Distribution 331

17.4 Percentile Rank 332

17.4.1 Calculating Percentile Ranks 334

17.4.2 The Distribution of Percentile Ranks 335

17.5 Graphs of Frequency Distributions 336

17.6 Using Symbols for Statistics 341

Chapter 18 Statistics(Two) 343

18.1 Measures of Central Tendency 343

18.1.1 The Arithmetic Mean 344

18.1.2 Mathematical Operations with the Mean 347

18.1.3 The Median 348

18.1.4 The Mode 350

18.1.5 Calculating Mean/Median/Mode 350

18.1.6 Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency 351

18.2 Measures of Dispersion 354

18.2.1 The Range 355

18.2.2 The Mean Deviation 356

18.2.3 The Sum of Squares 357

18.2.4 The Variance 358

18.2.5 The Standard Deviation 360

18.2.6 Variance/Standard Deviation Computing 361

18.2.7 Skewness and Kurtosis 362

Chapter 19 Probability Distribution 364

19.1 Definition of Probability 364

19.2 Seven Fundamental Rules of Probability 365

19.3 Samling a Finite Population Without Replacement 367

19.4 Factorial Notation 369

19.5 Application of the Fundamental Rules of Probability 371

19.6 Application of the Binomial Probability Distribution 375

19.7 Standard Scores 380

19.7.1 The Idea of a Standard Score 380

19.7.2 Zero Mean and Unit Standard Deviation 382

19.8 Properties of z-Score Distributions 383

19.9 Other Linear Score Transformations 385

19.10 Normal Distribution 387

19.10.1 Summary of the Properties of Normal Curves 389

19.10.2 Areas Under the Normal Curve 391

Chapter 20 Correlation and Prediction 396

20.1 The Study of Related Variables 396

20.2 Pearson Product Moment Correlation 397

20.3 Factors Influencing the Value of the Coefficient 401

20.4 Interpretation of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient 403

20.5 The Correlation Matrix 406

20.6 Other Correlation Coefficient 408

20.6.1 The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient 408

20.6.2 The Kendall Tau Rank Correlation Coefficient 410

20.7 Discussing the Prediction 411

20.8 Standard Error of Estimate 413

Chapter 21 Hypothesis and Testing 416

21.1 Null Hypothesis 416

21.2 The Region of Rejection 420

21.3 Procedure for Testing Hypothesis 424

21.4 The Problem of Error in Hypothesis Testing 427

21.4.1 When the Hypothesis is Related 429

21.4.2 Choosing the Level of Significance 431

21.5 The Power of a Statistical Test 432

Chapter 22 Knowledge of Experimenting 436

22.1 Understanding Experimental Design 436

22.2 Experimental Versus Ex Post Facto Research 439

22.3 Methods of Controlling Independent Variables 442

22.4 Selection of a Statistical Analysis 446

Chapter 23 Testing 450

23.1 The Students't-distribution 451

23.1.1 Comparing Two Means 452

23.1.2 Paired T-test 454

23.1.3 Examples in Independent Samples t-test 456

23.2 The Mann-whitney U-Test 458

23.2.1 Function 458

23.2.2 Procedure 459

23.2.3 Example 460

23.3 Normal Approximation with Tie Correlation 462

23.4 Tests of Significance of Correlation 464

23.5 Chi-square Tests of Goodness of Fit 465

23.5.1 Function 465

23.5.2 Procedure 466

23.5.3 Example 468

23.6 Chi-square Test for Goodness of Fit to Normal 469

23.7 Chi-square Tests for Contingency Tables 471

23.7.1 Function 471

23.7.2 Procedure 472

23.7.3 Example 473

23.8 The Median Test 475

23.9 One Way of Analysis of Variance 477

References 481

Appendix A 485

Appendix B 511

Appendix C 517

Appendix D 519

Appendix E 521

Appendix F 523

Appendix G 525

Appendix H 526

Appendix I 528