Introduction to biomechatronicsPDF电子书下载

1 Introduction to Biomechatronics 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Biomechatronic Systems 2

1.2.1 The Human Subject 2

1.2.2 Stimulus or Actuation 3

1.2.3 Transducers and Sensors 3

1.2.4 Signal Processing Elements 3

1.2.5 Recording and Display 3

1.2.6 Feedback Elements 4

1.3 Physiological Systems 4

1.3.1 Biochemical System 4

1.3.2 Nervous System 5

1.3.3 Cardiovascular System 5

1.3.4 Respiratory System 5

1.3.5 Musculoskeletal System 5

1.4 Summary of Contents 6

1.5 The Future of Biomechatronic Systems 6

1.6 References 7

2 Sensors and Transducers 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Switches 9

2.2.1 Toggle Switches 10

2.2.2 Push-Button Switches 10

2.2.3 Limit Switches 10

2.2.4 Rotary Switches 11

2.2.5 Optical Switches 11

2.2.6 Other Switches 11

2.2.7 Relays 12

2.3 Power Supplies 13

2.3.1 Linear Power Supplies 13

2.3.2 Switch-Mode Power Supplies 15

2.3.3 Batteries 16

2.3.4 Energy Scavenging 19

2.4 Sensors and Transducers 22

2.4.1 Resistive Displacement Sensors 22

2.4.2 Inductive Displacement Sensors 28

2.4.3 Magnetic Displacement Sensors 31

2.4.4 Capacitive Displacement Sensors 34

2.4.5 Optical Displacement Sensors 34

2.4.6 Ranging Sensors 38

2.4.7 Time-of-Flight Ranging 41

2.4.8 Measuring Rate and Angular Rate 43

2.4.9 Accelerometers 50

2.4.10 Tilt Sensors 55

2.4.11 Pressure Measurement 56

2.4.12 Sound Pressure 60

2.4.13 Flow 61

2.4.14 Temperature Sensors 67

2.4.15 Tactile Sensing 73

2.4.16 Chemical Sensors 77

2.4.17 Optical Chemical Sensors 80

2.5 Electrodes 83

2.5.1 Body-Surface Biopotential Electrodes 84

2.6 References 88

3 Actuators 91

3.1 Introduction 91

3.2 Electromechanical Actuators 91

3.2.1 Solenoids and Voice Coils 94

3.2.2 Direct Current Motors 99

3.2.3 Brushless DC Motors 113

3.2.4 Stepper Motors 117

3.2.5 Linear Actuators 124

3.2.6 Servo Motors 130

3.2.7 AC Motors 134

3.3 Hydraulic Actuators 137

3.4 Pneumatic Actuators 139

3.4.1 Pneumatic Muscles 140

3.5 Shape Memory Alloy 142

3.5.1 Principle of Operation 142

3.5.2 Biomechatronic Applications 145

3.6 Mechanical Amplification 145

3.6.1 Linkages and Levers 145

3.6.2 Cams 148

3.6.3 Gears and Belt Drives 149

3.6.4 Translation Screw Devices 153

3.7 Prosthetic Hand Actuation 154

3.7.1 Shape Memory Alloys 155

3.7.2 Electric Motors 155

3.7.3 Pneumatic Artificial Muscles 156

3.8 References 157

4 Feedback and Control Systems 159

4.1 Introduction 159

4.2 Biological Feedback Mechanisms 160

4.3 Biomechatronic Feedback Mechanisms 160

4.3.1 Limit Switches 161

4.3.2 Proportional and Higher-Order Controllers 161

4.4 System Representation 162

4.5 System Models 164

4.5.1 Mechanical Elements 164

4.5.2 Mechanical Model 166

4.5.3 Electrical Elements 168

4.5.4 Electrical Model 169

4.5.5 Similarities of the Two Models 171

4.5.6 Fluid Flow Elements 171

4.6 System Response 174

4.6.1 Partial Fraction Expansion 178

4.6.2 Analyzing Complex Models 179

4.7 System Stability 181

4.7.1 Root Locus 184

4.7.2 Steady-State Error 188

4.8 Controllers 188

4.8.1 Proportional Controller 188

4.8.2 Integral Controller 198

4.8.3 Proportional Plus Integral Controller 198

4.8.4 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller 200

4.9 Controller Implementation 201

4.9.1 Selection of Controller Gains 201

4.9.2 Controller Hardware 202

4.10 References 205

5 Signal Processing 207

5.1 Introduction 207

5.2 Biomedical Signals 207

5.2.1 Bioelectric Signals 208

5.2.2 Signals Characterized by Source 210

5.2.3 Signals Characterized by Type 210

5.3 Signal Acquisition 211

5.3.1 Noise 212

5.3.2 Amplifiers 216

5.3.3 Practical Considerations 222

5.3.4 Op Amp Specifications 223

5.4 Analog Signal Processing 224

5.4.1 Frequency Content of a Signal 224

5.4.2 Analog Filters 225

5.4.3 Other Analog Circuits 234

5.5 Digital Signal Processing 241

5.5.1 The Comparator 241

5.5.2 Signal Acquisition and Processing Overview 241

5.5.3 ADCs and DACs 243

5.5.4 Signal Aliasing 245

5.5.5 Digital Filters 248

5.5.6 Filter Time-Domain Response 258

5.5.7 Envelope Detection 259

5.5.8 Spectral Estimation 260

5.6 Statistical Techniques and Machine Learning 264

5.6.1 Statistical Techniques 264

5.6.2 Data Mining 267

5.6.3 Machine Learning 267

5.7 Isolation Barriers 270

5.7.1 Implant Systems 270

5.7.2 Isolation Amplifiers 272

5.8 References 274

6 Hearing Aids and Implants 277

6.1 Introduction 277

6.2 What Is Sound? 278

6.2.1 Characteristic Impedance （Z） and Sound Pressure 278

6.2.2 Sound Intensity （I） 279

6.3 How Hearing Works 281

6.3.1 The Outer Ear 281

6.3.2 The Middle Ear 281

6.3.3 The Inner Ear 283

6.3.4 Hearing Statistics 283

6.4 Hearing Loss 285

6.4.1 Causes 285

6.4.2 Diagnosis 286

6.4.3 Treatment 288

6.5 Hearing Aids 289

6.5.1 History 289

6.5.2 Hearing Aid Operation 292

6.6 Bone Conduction Devices 300

6.7 Middle Ear Implants 302

6.7.1 Piezoelectric Devices 303

6.7.2 Electromagnetic Hearing Devices 307

6.7.3 Issues with Implantable Middle Ear Devices 311

6.8 Direct Acoustic Cochlear Stimulatory Devices 312

6.8.1 Actuator Design 312

6.9 Cochlear Implants 314

6.9.1 Historical Background 314

6.9.2 How Cochlear Implants Work 315

6.9.3 Installation of the Electrode 320

6.9.4 Signal Processing and Cochlear Stimulation 320

6.9.5 Spectral Maxima Strategies 326

6.9.6 Strategies to Enhance Vocal Pitch 326

6.10 Auditory Brainstem Implants 328

6.10.1 Electrodes 329

6.10.2 Stimulus Mapping 330

6.11 References 330

7 Sensory Substitution and Visual Prostheses 333

7.1 Introduction 334

7.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Visual Pathway 335

7.3 Main Causes of Blindness 339

7.4 Optical Prosthetics—Glasses, Thermal Imagers, Night Vision 339

7.5 Sonar-Based Systems 341

7.5.1 Some Existing Systems 344

7.5.2 Issues with Sonar-Based Systems 350

7.6 Laser-Based Systems 350

7.7 Sensory Substitution 350

7.7.1 Auditory Substitution 351

7.7.2 Electrotactile and Vibrotactile Transducers 356

7.8 GPS-Based Systems 370

7.9 Visual Neuroprostheses 371

7.9.1 Historical Perspective 371

7.9.2 Potential Sites for Visual Neuroprostheses 371

7.9.3 Components 372

7.9.4 Worldwide Research Activity 375

7.9.5 SubretinalImplants 375

7.9.6 EpiretinalImplants 381

7.9.7 Alternative Implants 386

7.9.8 Optic Nerve Stimulation 387

7.9.9 Visual Cortex Implants 388

7.10 The Future 391

7.11 References 392

8 Heart Replacement 395

8.1 Introduction 396

8.2 The Heart as a Pump 397

8.2.1 Heart Valves 398

8.2.2 The Pump Cycle 399

8.2.3 The Cardiac Output 401

8.2.4 Pressure Regulation 401

8.2.5 Heart Disease 402

8.2.6 Biomechatronic Perspective 402

8.3 Heart-Lung Machines 403

8.3.1 History 403

8.3.2 Modern Heart—Lung Machines 404

8.4 Artificial Hearts 408

8.4.1 History 409

8.4.2 Implanting an Artificial Heart 417

8.5 Ventricular Assist Devices 417

8.5.1 History 419

8.5.2 Extracorporeal Ventricular Assist Devices 420

8.5.3 Intracorporeal Left Ventricular Assist Devices 421

8.5.4 Generation 1 LVADs 421

8.5.5 Pulsatile Pump Technology 429

8.5.6 Generation 2 VADs 433

8.5.7 Generation 3 VADs 435

8.5.8 Generation 4 VADs 439

8.5.9 Toward an Ideal Replacement Heart 443

8.5.10 Other Pump Types 443

8.6 Engineering in Heart Assist Devices 446

8.6.1 Fluid Dynamics in Pulsatile LVADs 446

8.6.2 Fluid Dynamics in Centrifugal and Axial LVADs 448

8.6.3 Estimation and Control of Blood Flow 450

8.6.4 Transcutaneous Energy Transfer 452

8.7 Pump Types 455

8.7.1 Centrifugal and Axial Pump Characteristics 456

8.7.2 Rotary Pump Characteristics 460

8.7.3 Reciprocating Pump Characteristics 462

8.7.4 Bearings 466

8.8 References 466

9 Respiratory Aids 471

9.1 Introduction 472

9.2 Construction 473

9.3 The Mechanics of Respiration 476

9.3.1 Physical Properties 477

9.3.2 Lung Elasticity 480

9.3.3 Frictional Forces 481

9.3.4 Inertia 485

9.4 Energy Required for Breathing 485

9.5 Measuring Lung Characteristics 488

9.5.1 Spirometry 488

9.5.2 Pneumotachography 492

9.6 Mechanical Ventilation 494

9.6.1 Early History 494

9.6.2 Polio 495

9.6.3 External Negative-Pressure Ventilators 497

9.6.4 The Drinker Respirator 499

9.6.5 The Both Respirator 501

9.6.6 Homemade Iron Lungs 501

9.6.7 The Emerson Respirator 504

9.6.8 The Alligator Cabinet Respirator 505

9.6.9 Portable Respirators 506

9.6.10 Other Uses for Negative-Pressure Ventilation 507

9.7 The Physics of External Negative-Pressure Ventilation 508

9.8 Positive-Pressure Ventilators 511

9.8.1 Historical Background 511

9.8.2 The Need for Positive-Pressure Ventilation 512

9.8.3 Ventilation Modes 513

9.8.4 Controlled Mandatory Ventilation 514

9.8.5 Volume-Controlled Mandatory Ventilation 514

9.8.6 Pressure-Controlled Mandatory Ventilation 516

9.8.7 Spontaneous Ventilation 517

9.8.8 Continuous Positive Airway Pressure 517

9.8.9 Portable Ventilators 517

9.8.10 Sleep Apnea 519

9.9 References 520

10 Active and Passive Prosthetic Limbs 523

10.1 Introduction 524

10.1.1 A Brief History of Prosthetics 524

10.2 Structure of the Arm 529

10.2.1 Wrist 529

10.2.2 Elbow 530

10.2.3 Shoulder 530

10.3 Kinematic Model of the Arm 531

10.4 Structure of the Leg 532

10.4.1 The Hip Joint 532

10.4.2 The Knee Joint 533

10.4.3 The Ankle Joint and the Foot 533

10.5 Kinematic Model of the Leg 534

10.5.1 Walking 534

10.5.2 Normal Walking Dynamics 535

10.6 Kinematics of Limb Movement 536

10.6.1 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia of a Limb Segment 536

10.6.2 Angular Acceleration 538

10.6.3 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia of a Complete Limb 538

10.7 Sensing 538

10.8 Passive Prosthetics 538

10.8.1 Actuation and Control of Upper Limb Prostheses 539

10.8.2 Walking Dynamics Using a Passive Prosthesis 541

10.8.3 Knee Prosthetics 542

10.8.4 Foot Prosthetics 545

10.9 Active Prosthetics 547

10.9.1 Arm Mechanisms 548

10.9.2 Hand Mechanisms 554

10.9.3 Hand Research and Applications 562

10.9.4 Control of Prosthetic Arms and Hands 563

10.9.5 Leg Mechanisms 574

10.9.6 Ankle-Foot Mechanisms 580

10.10 Prosthesis Suspension 582

10.10.1 Conventional Suspension Methods 583

10.10.2 Osseointegration 583

10.11 References 584

Index 587