DEFLNING RAPE EMERGING OBLIGATIONS FOR STATES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAWPDF电子书下载

Part Ⅰ: Introduction 1

1 The Definition of Rape in an International Perspective 3

1.1 Background 3

1.2 Purpose and Research Questions 9

1.3 Delimitations 9

1.4 Terminology 11

1.5 Sources of International Law 16

1.6 Method 28

1.7 Structure of the Book 31

Part Ⅱ: Elements of the Crime of Rape:A Contextual Approach 35

2 The Prohibition of Rape in Domestic Criminal Law:An Historical Overview 37

2.1 Introduction 37

2.2 Early Codes:Rape as a Violation of Property Rights 38

2.3 The Middle Ages 40

2.4 Corroboration of Complaints 41

2.5 The Women's Movement and Law Reforms 47

3 The Harm of Sexual Violence 53

3.1 Introduction 53

3.2 How to Define Harm 55

3.3 Can Sexuality be Harmed? 57

3.4 Human Dignity and Sexual Autonomy 64

3.5 Cultural and Collective Harm 68

4 Elements of the Crime of Rape 75

4.1 The Principle of Legality 75

4.1.1 The Principle in International Law 76

4.1.2 The Extent of Interpretation 81

4.2 Substantive Elements of the Definition of Rape 88

4.2.1 Introduction 88

4.2.2 The Elements of the Crime 90

4.2.3 Non-Consent 93

4.2.3.1 Performative and Subjective Consent 94

4.2.3.2 Appropriate Antecedents and Consent 99

4.2.4 Coercion 103

4.2.5 Force or Threat of Force 106

4.2.6 Implications of Non-Consent or Force Standards 107

4.2.7 Actus Reus 110

4.2.8 Mens Rea and Criminal Responsibility 115

5 Sexual Violence in Context 123

5.1 Introduction:Armed Conflict and Gender Hierarchies as Contextual Elements 123

5.2 Victims of Armed Conflicts 125

5.3 The Presence of Sexual Violence in Conflicts 128

5.4 Theories on the Existence of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts 136

5.5 Rape as a Strategic Tactic of War 139

5.5.1 Rape as a Crime against the Community 139

5.5.2 Distinguishing Rape from "Regular" Sexual Relations in Armed Conflicts 145

5.5.3 The Contextual Approach to a Definition of Rape 146

5.5.4 Armed Conflict as a Factor in Defining Rape 154

5.6 Common Forms of Rape in Peacetime 156

5.7 The Prohibition of Rape from Feminist Viewpoints 159

5.7.1 The Impact of Gender in Defining Rape 159

5.7.2 Feminist Critique of International Law 165

5.8 Male Rape - The Excluded Victim? 169

Part Ⅲ: An International Human Rights Law Perspective 177

6 State Obligations to Prevent and Punish Rape 179

6.1 Introduction 179

6.2 The Role of the State in International Human Rights Law 180

6.3 The Limits of State Obligations:Conduct Attributable to the State 182

6.3.1 Primary and Secondary Rules 182

6.3.2 Definition of an Internationally Wrongful Act 185

6.3.3 Domestic Laws as Breaches of International Law 186

6.3.4 Forms of Attribution 189

6.3.5 Widening the Scope of Responsibility under International Law 192

6.3.6 Consequences of the Public/Private Divide for Women's Human Rights 197

6.4 The Due Diligence Standard - An Obligation to Prevent and Punish Human Rights Violations 200

6.4.1 The Scope of Due Diligence and the Nature of State Obligations 204

6.4.2 Obligations in International Human Rights Treaties 207

6.4.3 Which Rights Engender Due Diligence Obligations? 214

6.4.4 The Due Diligence Standard as a Tool in Preventing Violence against Women 218

6.4.5 Prevention through Domestic Criminalisation 222

6.4.6 Jurisprudence Delineating the Obligation to Enact Criminal Laws 227

6.4.6.1 Case Law on Domestic Violence of the European and Inter-American Human Rights Systems 227

6.4.6.2 Case Law on Sexual Violence 231

6.4.6.3 Conclusions on Obligations in Case Law to Prevent Sexual Violence 241

6.4.6.4 Relevant Views and Statements from UN Treaty Bodies 244

6.4.7 Failure of State Obligations to Prevent Single Cases of Rape 247

6.5 Margin of Appreciation - Flexibility in National Implementation? 254

6.6 Conclusions on State Obligations 257

7 The Recognition of Rape as a Violation of International Human Rights Law 259

7.1 Is There a Human Right to Sexual Autonomy? 259

7.2 The Prohibition of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment 263

7.2.1 The Elements of Torture 263

7.2.2 State Nexus 268

7.2.3 Views and Cases on Rape as a Form of Torture 271

7.2.3.1 The UN System 271

7.2.3.2 Regional Human Rights Courts 276

7.2.4 International Criminal Law - A New Direction in Interpreting the Torture Definition? 281

7.2.4.1 State Nexus 281

7.2.4.2 Severity 285

7.2.4.3 Purpose 287

7.3 Rape as a Violation of the Right to Privacy 292

7.4 Rape as a Violation of the Non-Discrimination Principle 296

7.4.1 The Principle of Equality and Non-Discrimination 297

7.4.2 Purpose or Effect of Discrimination 298

7.4.3 State Obligations 304

7.4.4 Sexual Violence as a Form of Gender Discrimination 305

7.4.5 The Definition of Rape as an Expression of Gender Discrimination 311

7.4.5.1 Gender Inequality and Access to Justice 311

7.4.5.2 Gender-Bias in the Law 313

7.4.5.3 Gender-Bias in Language 316

7.4.5.4 Statistics as Evidence 318

7.5 Universal Impact of the Regional Approach 319

7.6 The lus Cogens Character of the Prohibition of Rape 325

7.6.1 Which Rights are Peremptory Norms? 332

7.6.2 A Gender-Sensitive Interpretation of lus Cogens 334

7.7 Summary of State Obligations on the Prohibition and Definition of Rape 336

Part Ⅳ: An International Humanitarian Law and International Criminal Law Perspective 339

8 International Humanitarian Law 341

8.1 Introduction:International Humanitarian Law and Enforcement through International Criminal Law 341

8.2 Characteristics of International Humanitarian Law 342

8.3 Early Codification of the Prohibition of Rape in International Humanitarian Law 344

8.4 The International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg and of the Far East:The Birth of International Criminal Law 345

8.5 The 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1977 Additional Protocols 347

8.6 The ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law 353

8.7 Intergovernmental Organisations and the Prohibition of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts 356

9 International Criminal Law 361

9.1 Introduction 361

9.2 Prosecution of Rape - The Ad Hoc Tribunals 362

9.2.1 ICTR:The First Definition of Rape in International Law 364

9.2.1.1 The Akayesu Case - A Conceptual Approach to Rape 366

9.2.1.2 Beyond the Akayesu Judgment 370

9.2.1.3 Conclusions 375

9.2.2 ICTY:New Approaches in Defining Rape 376

9.2.2.1 The Furundzija Judgment - A Focus on Force or the Threat of Force 378

9.2.2.2 The Kunarac Judgment - Rape as a Violation of Sexual Autonomy 383

9.2.3 Conclusions Based upon the Case Law of the ICTR and ICTY 389

9.2.4 The Special Court for Sierra Leone 398

9.3 The International Criminal Court 403

9.3.1 The Birth of the ICC 403

9.3.2 The Rome Statute and the Prohibition of Rape 406

9.3.3 A Complementary Relationship 408

9.3.4 The Rome Statute and the Scope of State Cooperation 410

9.3.4.1 A Duty to Implement the Crimes? 410

9.3.4.2 Modes of Implementation 412

9.3.4.3 Complementarity - Creating Demands on the Content of Domestic Laws? 414

9.3.4.4 Unwillingness 416

9.3.4.5 Inability 418

9.3.4.6 Ordinary Crimes 419

9.3.5 The Elements of the Definition of Rape 424

9.3.6 The Elements of Crimes and Its Status for Member States 430

9.3.7 Situations Investigated by the Court 434

9.3.8 Impact of the ICC 437

9.4 Universal Jurisdiction for the Crime of Rape? 440

9.4.1 Which Crimes Incur Universal Jurisdiction? 444

9.4.2 Domestic Application - Various Solutions 450

9.4.3 Conclusion on Universal Jurisdiction and the Prohibition of Rape 457

Part Ⅴ: The Prohibition of Rape - Closing the Gap between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law? 459

10 The Interplay between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law 461

10.1 The Concepts of Harmonisation and Humanisation in International Law 461

10.2 The Nature of International Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law 463

10.3 Fragmentation and Specialisation of Public International Law 466

10.3.1 General Remarks 466

10.3.2 Lex Specialis versus Lex Generolis 468

10.3.3 Case Law of the ICJ 471

10.3.4 A Complementary Approach 474

10.3.5 Fundamental Standards of Humanity - A Step towards Harmonisation 478

10.4 The Concept of "Humanisation" of Humanitarian Law and Its Emergence 483

10.5 The Application of International Humanitarian Law by Human Rights Courts and Treaty Bodies 489

10.6 Is Harmonisation Desirable? 493

10.7 Harmonising the Definitions of Rape and Torture 497

10.7.1 The Definition of Torture 500

10.7.2 The Definition of Rape 501

Part Ⅵ: A Cultural Perspective 505

11 Cultural Relativism and Obstacles to a Uniform International Definition of Rape 507

11.1 Cultural Relativism and Women's Human Rights 507

11.1.1 Relativity of Women's Rights 512

11.1.2 Conflicts of Rights 515

11.2 Cultural Relativism and International Criminal Law 517

11.3 Culture and Mens Rea - A Criminal Defence 520

11.4 Relativism Inherent in the International Law System 524

Part Ⅶ: Conclusions - Emerging Obligations in Defining the Crime of Rape? 527

12 Concluding Summary and Remarks 529

12.1 Introduction 529

12.2 Conclusion:The Prohibition and Definition of Rape in International Law 530

12.3 The Harmonisation of Regimes and the Importance of Context 534

12.4 General Remarks 536

12.5 Critique of International Law Affecting the Prohibition of Rape 541

12.6 The Legal Basis for Defining Rape 544

12.7 Suggestions for the Future 545

References 547

Bibliography 577

Index 605