FUDAMENTLS OF RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICEPDF电子书下载

1 Science, Society, and Criminological Research 1

What Do We Have in Mind? 1

Reasoning About the Social World 2

Case Study: Exploring Youth VioLence 2

Questions and Answers 3

Everyday Errors in Reasoning 4

How the Scientific Approach is Different 7

Why We Do Criminological Research 7

Social Criminological Research in Action 8

Description: How PrevaLent Is Youth Violence? 9

ExpLoration: How Do Schools Respond to Gun VioLence? 11

ExpLanation: What Factors Are Related to Youth DeLinquency and Violence? 12

EvaLuation: Do VioLence Prevention Programs in SchooLs Work? 13

Strengths and Limitations of Social Research 14

Types of Research Methods 15

Quantitative and QuaLitative Methods 16

Social Research Goals 18

Measurement Validity 19

GeneratizabiLity 19

Causal Validity 20

Authenticity 20

Conclusion 20

Key Terms 21

Highlights 21

Exercises 22

Discussing Research 22

Finding Research on the Web 22

Critiquing Research 23

Making Research EthicaL 23

DeveLoping a Research Proposal 23

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 24

2 The Process and Problems of Criminological Research 25

What Do We Have in Mind? 25

Criminological Research Questions 26

Identifying Criminological Research Questions 27

Refining Criminological Research Questions 27

Evaluating Criminological Research Questions 28

The Rote of Criminological Theory 29

Social Research Strategies 32

The Research Circle 32

Domestic Violence and the Research Circle 36

Phase 1: Deductive Research 36

Phase 2: Deductive Research 38

Phase 3: Inductive Research 38

Phase 4: Deductive Research 40

Adding Exploration to the Mix 40

Guidelines for Criminologists 41

Scientific Guidelines 41

Conclusion 44

Key Terms 44

Highlights 44

Exercises 45

Discussing Research 45

Finding Research on the Web 45

Critiquing Research 46

Making Research Ethical 46

Developing a Research Proposal 47

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 47

3 Research Ethics and Philosophies 49

What Do We Have in Mind? 49

Historical Background 52

Ethical Principles 55

Achieving Valid Results 55

Honesty and Openness 57

Protecting Research Participants 57

The Uses of Research 67

Social Research Philosophies 68

Positivism and Postpositivism 68

Interpretivism and Constructivism 71

An Integrated Philosophy 72

Conctusion 73

Key Terms 74

Highlights 74

Exercises 75

Discussing Research 75

Finding Research on the Web 75

Critiquing Research 76

Making Research Ethical 76

DeveLoping a Research Proposal 76

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel 77

4 Conceptualization and Measurement 79

What Do We Have in Mind? 79

Concepts 80

Defining Youth Gangs 80

Concepts and Variables 81

How WiLL We Know When We've Found It? 82

Using AvaiLabLe Data 83

Constructing Questions 84

Making Observations 85

Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 85

Combining Measurement Operations 86

How Much Information Do We ReaLLy Have? 86

Nominal Level of Measurement 88

Ordinal Level of Measurement 88

Interval Level of Measurement 90

Ratio Level of Measurement 90

Comparison of LeveLs of Measurement 91

Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 92

Measurement VaLidity 93

Reliability 95

Can We Achieve Both ReliabiLity and Validity? 97

Conctusion 98

Key Terms 99

Hightights 99

Exercises 100

Discussing Research 100

Finding Research on the Web 100

Critiquing Research 101

Making Research Ethical 101

Developing a Research Proposal 101

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 102

5 Sampling 103

What Do We Have in Mind? 103

Sample Planning 103

Define SampLe Components and the Population 104

Evaluate Generalizability 106

Assess Population Diversity 108

Consider a Census 110

SampLing Methods 111

Probability Sampling Methods 112

Nonprobability SampLing Methods 118

Lessons About Sample Quality 123

Units of Analysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning 123

Individual and Group Units of Analysis 123

The EcologicaL Fallacy and Reductionism 124

Conclusion 125

Key Terms 126

Highlights 126

Exercises 127

Discussing Research 127

Finding Research on the Web 128

Critiquing Research 128

Making Research Ethical 128

Developing a Research Proposal 129

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 129

6 Causation and Research Design 131

What Do We Mean by Causation? 131

Causal Explanation 132

Association 133

Time Order 134

Nonspuriousness 134

Mechanism 134

Context 135

Why Experiment? 136

An Experiment in Action: Prison Classification and Inmate Behavior 138

Field Experiments: Determining the Effect of Incarceration on Employment 139

What If a True Experiment Isn't Possible? 141

NonequivaLent Control Group Designs 142

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Drug Courts 142

Before-and-After Designs 143

Case Study: The Effects of the Youth Criminal Justice Act 144

Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 146

Case Study: Does an Arrest Increase Delinquency? 146

What Are the Threats to Internal Validity and Generatizabitity in Experiments? 146

Causal (Internal) VaLidity 147

Generatizability 150

Interaction of Testing and Treatment 151

The Element of Time in Research 152

Repeated Cross-Sectional Designs 153

Fixed-Sample Panel Designs 154

Event-Based Designs 155

How Do Experimenters Protect Their Subjects? 156

Deception 156

Selective Distribution of Benefits 156

Conclusion 157

Key Terms 158

Highlights 158

Exercises 159

Discussing Research 159

Finding Research on the Web 159

Critiquing Research 160

Making Research Ethical 160

Developing a Research Proposal 161

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or ExceL 161

7 Survey Research 163

Survey Research in Action: Measuring Victimization 163

What Is a Survey? 164

Attractive Features of Survey Research 164

The Omnibus Survey 165

Questionnaire Development and Assessment 165

Maintain Focus 166

Build on Existing Instruments 166

Writing Questions 167

Constructing Clear and Meaningful Questions 169

Additional Guidelines for Fixed-Response Questions 171

Combining Questions into an Index 174

Demographic Questions 175

Don't Forget to Pretest! 178

Organization Matters 178

Survey Designs 180

Mailed Self-Administered Surveys 181

Group-Administered Surveys 181

Surveys by Telephone 182

In-Person Interviews 183

Electronic Surveys 184

Mixed-Mode Surveys 186

A Comparison of Survey Designs 186

Ethical Issues in Survey Research 188

Protection of Respondents 188

Confidentiality 188

Conclusion 189

Key Terms 190

Highlights 190

Exercises 191

Discussing Research 191

Finding Research on the Web 191

Critiquing Research 192

Making Research Ethical 192

Developing a Research Proposal 192

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 193

8 Qualitative Methods and Data Analysis 195

What Do We Mean by Qualitative Methods? 195

Origins of Qualitative Research 197

Case Study: Life in the Gang 197

Participant Observation 199

Choosing a Role 199

Entering the Field 203

Developing and Maintaining Relationships 203

Sampling People and Events 204

Taking Notes 206

Managing the Personal Dimensions 206

Systematic Observation 207

Case Study: Systematic Observation in Chicago Neighborhoods 208

Intensive Interviewing 210

Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership 212

Asking Questions and Recording Answers 212

Focus Groups 213

Case Study: Combining Focus Groups With Official Records When Examining Police Searches 214

Analyzing Qualitative Data 215

Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art 216

Qualitative Compared With Quantitative Data Analysis 216

Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis 216

Documentation 217

Making Sense of It: Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing 217

Examining Relationships and Displaying Data 218

Authenticating Conclusions 218

Reflexivity 220

Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis 220

Ethnography 221

Grounded Theory 222

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis 223

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 224

Voluntary Participation 224

Subject Well-Being 224

Identity Disclosure 225

Confidentiality 225

Appropriate Boundaries 226

Researcher Safety 226

Conclusion 227

Notes 228

Key Terms 228

Highlights 228

Exercises 229

Discussing Research 229

Finding Research on the Web 230

Critiquing Research 230

Making Research Ethical 231

Developing a Research Proposal 231

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 232

9 Analyzing Content: Crime Mapping and Historical, Secondary, and Content Analysis 233

What Is Secondary Data? 233

Case Study: Gender and Offending 234

Historical Events Research 234

Case Study: Race, Rape, and Capital Punishment 236

Comparative Methods 236

Case Study: Homicide Across Nations 237

Content Analysis 238

Identifying a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources 239

Case Study: Crime and TV 240

Crime Mapping 241

Case Study: Mapping Crime in Cities 242

Case Study: Gang Homicides in St. Louis, Missouri 242

Case Study: Using Google Earth to Track Sexual Offending Recidivism 245

Combining Research Designs 246

Comparing Research Designs 246

Triangulating Research Designs 247

Case Study: Triangulation In Action--School Security and Discipline 247

Ethical Issues When Analyzing Available Data and Content 248

Conclusion 249

Key Terms 250

Highlights 250

Exercises 250

Discussing Research 250

Finding Research on the Web 251

Critiquing Research 251

Making Research Ethical 252

Developing a Research Proposal 252

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 253

10 Evaluation and Policy Analysis 255

Why Do We Need Evaluation? 255

A Brief History of Evaluation Research 256

Evaluation Basics 258

Evaluation Alternatives 260

Do We Need the Program? 261

Can the Program Be Evaluated? 261

Is the Program Working as Planned? 261

Case Study: Evaluating the D.A.R.E. Program 262

Did the Program Work? 263

Case Study: The Risk Skills Training Program (RSTP) Compared to D.A.R.E. 264

Is the Program Worth It? 265

Case Study: Cost-Benefit AnaLysis of Therapeutic Communities 267

Design Decisions 267

BLack Box EvaLuation or Program Theory 267

Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation 268

Evaluation in Action 269

Case Study: Problem-Oriented Policing in VioLent Crime Areas 269

Strengths of Randomized Experimental Designs in Impact Evaluations 271

When Experiments Are Not Feasible 272

Case Study: Boot Camps 272

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods 273

Increasing Demand for Evidence-Based Policy 274

Meta-Analyses 276

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Anti-Bullying Programs 277

Ethics in Evaluation 277

Conclusion 278

Key Terms 278

Highlights 279

Exercises 279

Discussing Research 279

Finding Research on the Web 280

Critiquing Research 280

Making Research Ethical 280

DeveLoping a Research Proposal 281

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel 281

11 Quantitative Data Analysis 283

Why We Need Statistics 283

Case Study: The Causes of Delinquency 284

Preparing Data for Analysis 284

Displaying Univariate Distributions 286

Graphs 287

Frequency Distributions 288

Ungrouped Data 289

Grouped Data 290

Summarizing Univariate Distributions 294

Measures of Central Tendency 295

Measures of Variation 301

Crosstabulating Variables 304

Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to lie About Relationships 308

Conclusion 308

Key Terms 309

Highlights 309

Exercises 309

Discussing Research 309

Finding Research on the Web 310

Critiquing Research 310

Making Research Ethical 310

Developing a Research Proposal 311

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel 311

12 Reporting Research Results 313

Research Report Goals 313

Advance Scientific Knowledge 314

Shape Social Policy 314

Organize Social Action—Participatory Action Research 315

Case Study: Seeking Higher Education for Inmates 315

Types of Research Reports 316

Student Papers and Theses 317

Journal ArticLes 317

Applied Reports 319

Curbing the Frustrations of Writing 320

Ethics and Reporting 321

Plagiarism 322

Conclusion 323

Key Terms 323

Highlights 323

Exercises 324

Discussing Research 324

Finding Research on the Web 324

Critiquing Research 325

Making Research Ethical 325

Developing a Research Proposal 325

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel 326

Glossary 327

References 347

Index 363