CHEMISTRY THE CENTRAL SCIENCEPDF电子书下载

1 Introduction: Some Basic Concepts 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATTER 2

Substances 5

Physical and Chemical Properties 5

Physical and Chemical Changes 5

Mixtures 6

1.2 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 9

Elements 10

Compounds 10

1.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 11

Length and Mass 13

Temperature 13

Derived SI Units 15

Volume 15

Density 16

Intensive and ExtensiveProperties 19

1.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT 19

Precision and Accuracy 19

Significant Figures 20

Significant Figures in Calculations 21

1.5 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 23

Summary of Dimensional Analysis 25

Summary 27

Key Terms 28

Exercises 28

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 32

2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER 33

2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 35

Cathode Rays and Electrons 35

Radioactivity 38

The Nuclear Atom 39

2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 41

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers, and Mass Numbers 43

2.4 THE PERIODIC TABLE 44

2.5 MOLECULES AND IONS 48

Molecules and Chemical Formulas 48

Molecular, Empirical, and Structural Formulas 49

Ions 50

Predicting Ionic Charges 52

Ionic Compounds 53

2.6 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 55

Ionic Compounds: Cations 55

Ionic Compounds: Anions 56

Acids 59

Molecular Compounds 61

Summary 61

Key Terms 62

Exercises 62

3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 67

3.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 68

3.2 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY 71

Using the Periodic Table 72

Combustion in Air 72

Combination and Decomposition Reactions 73

3.3 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR WEIGHTS 75

The Atomic Mass Scale 75

Average Atomic Masses 76

Formula and Molecular Weights 77

Percentage Composition from Formulas 79

3.4 THE MOLE 79

Molar Mass 80

Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Numbers of Particles 82

3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES 84

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula 85

Combustion Analysis 86

3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS 88

3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS 92

Theoretical Yields 95

Summary 96

Key Terms 97

Exercises 97

4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 104

4.1 SOLUTION COMPOSITION 106

Molarity 106

Dilution 108

4.2 ELECTROLYTES 109

Strong and Weak Electrolytes 110

4.3 ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 112

Bases 112

Salts 113

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 114

Neutralization Reactions 115

4.4 IONIC EQUATIONS 115

4.5 METATHESIS REACTIONS 117

Precipitation Reactions 118

Solubility Rules 118

Reactions in Which a Weak Electrolyte or Nonelectrolyte Forms 120

Reactions in Which a Gas Forms 121

4.6 REACTIONS OF METALS 124

Oxidation and Reduction 124

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts 125

The Activity Series 126

4.7 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY 128

Titrations 131

Summary 134

Key Terms 134

Exercises 135

5 Energy Relationships in Chemistry:Thermochemistry 139

5.1 THE NATURE OF ENERGY 140

Kinetic and Potential Energy 141

Energy Units 141

Systems and Surroundings 142

Lowering the Energy of the System 142

5.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 143

Internal Energy 143

Relating △E to Heat and Work 144

State Functions 144

5.3 HEAT AND ENTHALPY CHANGES 146

Enthalpy 147

5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION 147

5.5 CALORIMETRY 152

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 152

Constant-PressureCalorimetry 153

Bomb Calorimetry （Constant-Volume Calorimetry） 154

5.6 HESS’S LAW 156

5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION 159

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 160

5.8 FOODS AND FUELS 162

Foods 162

Fuels 164

Other Energy Sources 167

Summary 167

Key Terms 168

Exercises 169

6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 174

6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 175

6.2 QUANTUM EFFECTS AND PHOTONS 178

The Photoelectric Effect 180

6.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM 181

Line Spectra 181

Bohr’s Model 184

6.4 THE DUAL NATURE OF THE ELECTRON 186

The Uncertainty Principle 187

6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS 189

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 190

6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS 192

The s Orbitals 192

The p Orbitals 193

The d and f Orbitals 194

6.7 ORBITALS IN MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS 195

Effective Nuclear Charge 196

Energies of Orbitals 196

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 197

6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 199

Writing Electron Configurations 199

6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 204

Summary 208

Key Terms 209

Exercises 210

7Periodic Properties of the Elements 215

7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 216

7.2 ELECTRON SHELLS IN ATOMS 218

7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS 220

7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY 221

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies 223

7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES 224

7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS 226

Metals 227

Nonmetals 229

Metalloids 231

Trends in Metallic and Nonmetallic Character 231

7.7 GROUP TRENDS: THE ACTIVE METALS 232

Group 1A: The Alkali Metals 233

Group 2A: The AlkalineEarth Metals 236

7.8 GROUP TRENDS: SELECTED NONMETALS 238

Hydrogen 238

Group 6A: The Oxygen Family 238

Group 7A: The Halogens 240

Group 8A: The Noble Gases 243

Summary 244

Key Terms 244

Exercises 245

8Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 249

8.1 LEWIS SYMBOLS AND THE OCTET RULE 251

8.2 IONIC BONDING 252

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 253

Electron Configurations of Ions 254

Polyatomic Ions 256

8.3 SIZES OF IONS 257

8.4 COVALENT BONDING 259

Multiple Bonds 260

8.5 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY 261

Electronegativity 261 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 262

8.6 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES 263

8.7 RESONANCE STRUCTURES 265

8.8 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE 268

Odd Number of Electrons 268 Less Than an Octet 268

More Than an Octet 269

8.9 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS 270

Bond Energies and the Enthalpy of Reactions 272

Bond Strength and Bond Length 273

8.10 OXIDATION NUMBERS 275

Oxidation Numbers and Nomenclature 277

Summary 279

Key Terms 280

Exercises 280

9Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 285

9.1 MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES 286

The Valence-Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model 287

Predicting Molecular Geometries 288

Four or Fewer Valence-Shell Electron Pairs 290

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons andMultiple Bonds on Bond Angles 292

Geometries of Moleculeswith Expanded Valence Shells 293

Molecules with No Single Central Atom 296

9.2 POLARITY OF MOLECULES 297

The Polarity of Polyatomic Molecules 298

9.3 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP 301

9.4 HYBRID ORBITALS 302

sp Hybrid Orbitals 302

sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 304

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals 306

Summary 306

9.5 MULTIPLE BONDS 309

Delocalized Bonding 313

General Conclusions 314

9.6 MOLECULAR ORBITALS 315

The Hydrogen Molecule 315

Bond Order 317

9.7 SECOND-PERIOD DIATOMIC MOLECULES 318

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 318

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 319

Electron Configurations for B 2

Through F2 320

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 321

Summary 325

Key Terms 326

Exercises 327

10 Gases 331

10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES 332

10.2 PRESSURE 333

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 333

Pressures of Enclosed Gases and Manometers 335

10.3 THE GAS LAWS 337

The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law 337

The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law 339

The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law 340

10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 341

Relationship Between the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 344

10.5 MOLAR MASS AND GAS DENSITIES 347

10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES 348

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 349

10.7 VOLUMES OF GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 350

Collecting Gases Over Water 351

10.8 KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY 353

Application to the Gas Laws 354

10.9 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION 356

Graham’s Law of Effusion 357

Diffusion and Mean Free Path 358

10.10 DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR 360

The van der Waals Equation 361

Summary 363

Key Terms 364

Exercises 364

11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 371

11.1 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR DESCRIPTION OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 372

11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 373

Ion-Dipole Forces 374 Dipole-Dipole Forces 374

London Dispersion Forces 375 Hydrogen Bonding 377

11.3 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS: VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION 382

Viscosity 382 Surface Tension 382

11.4 CHANGES OF STATE 383

Energy Changes Accompanying Changes of State 384

Heating Curves 384

Critical Temperature and Pressure 386

11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE 387

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level 388

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 389

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 389

11.6 PHASE DIAGRAMS 391

The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 392

11.7 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS 394

Unit Cells 395

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride 396

Close Packing of Spheres 398

11.8 BONDING IN SOLIDS 400

Molecular Solids 400

Covalent-Network Solids 402

Ionic Solids 404

Metallic Solids 405

Summary 406

Key Terms 407

Exercises 408

12 Modern Materials 413

12.1 LIQUID CRYSTALS 415

Types of Liquid-Crystalline Phases 416

12.2 POLYMERS 421

Types of Polymers 424

Structures and Physical Properties of Polymers 425

Crosslinking of Polymers 428

12.3 CERAMICS 430

Processing of Ceramics 432

Ceramic Composites 433

Applications of Ceramics 434

Superconducting Ceramics 434

12.4 THIN FILMS 437

Uses of Thin Films 438

Formation of Thin Films 439

Summary 442

Key Terms 443

Exercises 443

13 Properties of Solutions 447

13.1 THE SOLUTION PROCESS 448

Energy Changes and Solution Formation 449

SolutionFormation, Spontaneity, and Disorder 451

Solution Formationand Chemical Reactions 453

13.2 WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION 453

13.3 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 458

13.4 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 459

Solute-Solvent Interactions 460

Pressure Effects 462

Temperature Effects 464

13.5 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 465

Lowering the Vapor Pressure 466

Raoult’s Law 467

Boiling-Point Elevation 469

Freezing-Point Depression 470

Osmosis 472

Determination of Molar Mass 475

13.6 COLLOIDS 476

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 477

Removal of Colloidal Particles 480

Summary 480

Key Terms 481

Exercises 481

14 Chemical Kinetics 487

14.1 REACTION RATES 488

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 491

14.2 THE DEPENDENCE OF RATE ON CONCENTRATION 492

Reaction Order 494

Units of Rate Constants 494

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 495

14.3 CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION WITH TIME 496

First-Order Reactions 497

Half-Life 499

Second-Order Reactions 500

14.4 TEMPERATURE AND RATE 501

The Collision Model 502

Activation Energy 503

The Arrhenius Equation 505

14.5 REACTION MECHANISMS 509

Elementary Steps 509

Rate Laws of Elementary Processes 511

Rate Laws of Multistep Mechanisms 512

Mechanisms with an Initial Fast Step 514

14.6 CATALYSIS 517

Homogeneous Catalysis 517

Heterogeneous Catalysis 518

Enzymes 522

Summary 524

Key Terms 525

Exercises 525

15 Chemical Equilibrium 533

15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM 535

15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 537

Expressing Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp 540

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 541

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K 542

15.3 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA 543

15.4 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 545

Relating Kc and Kp 547

15.5 APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 548

Predicting the Direction of Reaction 548 Calculation of Equilibrium Concentrations 549

15.6 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM:LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE 552

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations 553

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 555

Effect of Temperature Changes 556

The Effect of Catalysts 559

Summary 561

Key Terms 561

Exercises 562

16 Acid-Base Equilibria 567

16.1 THE DISSOCIATION OF WATER 568

The Proton in Water 570

16.2 BR？NSTED-LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES 570

Proton-Transfer Reactions 571

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 572

Conjugate Acid-Base Strengths 573

16.3 THE pH SCALE 575

Measuring pH 577

16.4 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES 578

Strong Acids 578

Strong Bases 579

16.5 WEAK ACIDS 580

Calculating pH for Solutions of Weak Acids 582

Polyprotic Acids 587

16.6 WEAK BASES 590

Types of Weak Bases 592

16.7 RELATION BETWEEN Ka AND Kb 594

16.8 ACID-BASE PROPERTIES OF SALT SOLUTIONS 596

16.9 ACID-BASE BEHAVIOR AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE 599

Effect of Bond Polarity and Bond Strength 599

Oxyacids 600

Carboxylic Acids 602

16.10 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES 603

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions 606

Summary 607

Key Terms 608

Exercises 608

17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 614

17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT 615

17.2 ACID-BASE TITRATIONS 618

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations 619

The Addition of a Strong Base to a Weak Acid 622

Titration Curves for Weak Acids or Weak Bases 624

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 626

17.3 BUFFERED SOLUTIONS 628

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 628

Buffer Capacity and pH 629

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases toBuffers 632

17.4 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 637

The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 637

Solubility and Ksp 638

The Common-Ion Effect 640

17.5 CRITERIA FOR PRECIPITATION OR DISSOLUTION 640

Solubility and pH 643 Selective Precipitation of Ions 645

Effect of Complex Formation on Solubility 647

Amphoterism 649

17.6 QUALITATIVE ANALYSES FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS 651

Summary 654

Key Terms 654

Exercises 655

18 Chemistry of the Environment 661

18.1 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 662

Composition of the Atmosphere 663

18.2 THE OUTER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 664

Photodissociation 665

Photoionization 666

18.3 OZONE IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 667

Depletion of the Ozone Layer 669

18.4 CHEMISTRY OF THE TROPOSPHERE 670

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 672

Carbon Monoxide 675

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 676

Water Vapor,Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 677

18.5 THE WORLD OCEAN 679

Seawater 679

Desalination 680

Ocean Pollution 682

18.6 FRESH WATER 682

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 683

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 684

Summary 686

Key Terms 687

Exercises 687

19 Chemical Thermodynamics 691

19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES 692

19.2 SPONTANEITY, ENTHALPY, AND ENTROPY 694

Spontaneity and Entropy Change 694

The Second Law of Thermodynamics 697

19.3 A MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF ENTROPY 699

19.4 CALCULATION OF ENTROPY CHANGES 704

19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY 705

Standard Free-Energy Changes 706

19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE 708

19.7 FREE ENERGY AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 710

Summary 713

Key Terms 714

Exercises 714

20 Electrochemistry 719

20.1 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 721

20.2 BALANCING OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUATIONS 722

Half-Reactions 722

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 723

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 726

20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS 727

20.4 CELL EMF 731

Standard Electrode Potentials 732

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 735

20.5 SPONTANEITY OF REDOX REACTIONS 736

Emf and Free-Energy Change 737

20.6 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON CELL EMF 739

The Nernst Equation 739

Equilibrium Constants for Redox Equations 741

20.7 COMMERCIAL VOLTAIC CELLS 743

Lead Storage Battery 744

Dry Cell 745

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 746

Fuel Cells 746

20.8 ELECTROLYSIS 747

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 748

Electrolysis with Active Electrodes 750

20.9 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS 751

Electrical Work 753

20.10 CORROSION 755

Corrosion of Iron 756

Prevention of Corrosion 757

Summary 759

Key Terms 760

Exercises 761

21 Nuclear Chemistry 768

21.1 RADIOACTIVITY 769

Nuclear Equations 770

Types of Radioactive Decay 771

21.2 PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY 773

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 773 Radioactive Series 775

Further Observations 776

21.3 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS 777

Using Charged Particles 778

Using Neutrons 779

Transuranium Elements 779

21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 780

Dating 781

Calculations Based on Half-Life 782

21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY 784

Radiotracers 785

21.6 ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS 786

Nuclear Binding Energies 789

21.7 NUCLEAR FISSION 790

Nuclear Reactors 794

21.8 NUCLEAR FUSION 795

21.9 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 797

Radiation Doses 798

Radon 798

Summary 801

Key Terms 802

Exercises 803

22 Chemistry of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen,and Carbon 807

22.1 PERIODIC TRENDS 808

22.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 810

22.3 HYDROGEN 812

Isotopes of Hydrogen 812

Properties of Hydrogen 813

Preparation of Hydrogen 815

Uses of Hydrogen 816

Binary Hydrogen Compounds 816

22.4 OXYGEN 818

Properties of Oxygen 819

Preparation of Oxygen 820

Uses of Oxygen 820

Ozone 821

Oxides 822

Peroxides and Superoxides 823

The Oxygen Cycle 824

22.5 NITROGEN 824

Properties of Nitrogen 825

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen 826

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 826

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 828

The Nitrogen Cycle in Nature 832

22.6 CARBON 833

Elemental Forms of Carbon 833

Oxides of Carbon 835

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 837

Carbides 839

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon 839

Summary 840

Key Terms 840

Exercises 841

23 Chemistry of Other Nonmetallic Elements 845

23.1 THE NOBLE-GAS ELEMENTS 846

Noble-Gas Compounds 846

23.2 THE HALOGENS 848

Occurrences of the Halogens 848

Properties and Preparation ofthe Halogens 849

Uses of the Halogens 851

The HydrogenHalides 852

Interhalogen Compounds 855

Oxyacids and Oxyanions 857

23.3 THE GROUP 6A ELEMENTS 858

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 859

Occurrences and Preparation of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 860

Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 861

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur 862

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Se and Te 865

Sulfides, Selenides, and Tellurides 865

23.4 THE GROUP 5A ELEMENTS 866

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements 866

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus 867

Phosphorus Halides 867

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 869

Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth 871

23.5 THE GROUP 4A ELEMENTS 872

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 872

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 873

Silicates 874

Aluminosilicates 876

Glass 877

Silicones 878

23.6 BORON 879

Summary 880

Key Terms 880

Exercises 881

24 Metals and Metallurgy 885

24.1 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF METALS 886

Minerals 887

Metallurgy 888

24.2 PYROMETALLURGY 890

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron 891

Formation of Steel 893

24.3 HYDROMETALLURGY 894

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum 895

24.4 ELECTROMETALLURGY 895

Electrometallurgy of Sodium 896

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 896

Electrorefining of Copper 897

24.5 METALLIC BONDING 899

Physical Properties of Metals 900

Electron-Sea Model forMetallic Bonding 901

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals 901

24.6 ALLOYS 905

Intermetallic Compounds 906

24.7 TRANSITION METALS 907

Physical Properties 907

Electron Configurations and OxidationStates 909

Magnetism 911

24.8 CHEMISTRY OF SELECTED TRANSITION METALS 912

Chromium 912

Iron 913

Copper 914

Summary 916

Key Terms 917

Exercises 917

25 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 921

25.1 STRUCTURE OF COMPLEXES 922

Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries 923

25.2 CHELATES 925

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 928

25.3 NOMENCLATURE 932

25.4 ISOMERISM 934

Structural Isomerism 935 Stereoisomerism 936

25.5 LIGAND-EXCHANGE RATES 939

25.6 COLOR AND MAGNETISM 940

Color 941 Magnetism 942

25.7 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY 943

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 948

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 949

Summary 951

Key Terms 952

Exercises 952

26 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and BiologicalChemistry 956

26.1 ALKANES 958

Structures of Alkanes 959

Structural Isomers 960

Nomenclature of Alkanes 960

Cycloalkanes 963

Reactions of Alkanes 964

26.2 UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS 966

Alkenes 966

Alkynes 967

Addition Reactions of Alkenes andAlkynes 968

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 970

26.3 HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES 972

Alcohols 973

Ethers 975

Aldehydes and Ketones 975

Carboxylic Acids 976

Esters 978

Amines and Amides 979

26.4 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY 980

26.5 PROTEINS 981

Amino Acids 981

Polypeptides and Proteins 983

Protein Structure 985

26.6 CARBOHYDRATES 986

Disaccharides 988

Polysaccharides 989

26.7 NUCLEIC ACIDS 991

Summary 994

Key Terms 995

Exercises 996

A Mathematical Operations 1003

B Properties of Water 1011

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K （25℃） 1012

D Aqueous-Equilibrium Constants 1016

E Standard Electrode Potentials at 25℃ 1018

Answers to Selected Exercises 1020