International Environmental LawPDF电子书下载

Ⅰ Historical Development 1

1 From the Beginnings of International Environmental Law to the Stockholm Conference （1972） 3

1.1 Early Stages and the Interwar Period 3

1.2 From 1945 to 1972 4

2 From Stockholm to the Rio Conference （1992） 7

2.1 The Stockholm Conference 7

2.2 Impacts of the North-South Divide on International Environmental Law 8

2.3 International Treaty Practice since 1972 10

2.4 Other Activities 11

3 From Rio to the Johannesburg Conference （2002） 13

3.1 The Rio Conference 13

3.2 Rio Outcomes 14

3.2.1 The Concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ 15

3.2.2 Legally Non-Binding Instruments 16

3.2.3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements （MEAs） 18

3.2.4 Institutional Innovations 18

3.2.5 Rio Evaluated 19

3.3 Post-Rio Process 19

4 Johannesburg and Beyond 23

4.1 The Johannesburg Summit 23

4.2 Johannesburg Outcomes 23

4.2.1 ‘Type 1 Outcome’： The Political Declaration and the Plan of Implementation 24

4.2.2 ‘Type 2 Outcome’： Partnership Initiatives 25

4.2.3 Johannesburg Evaluated 26

4.3 From Johannesburg to Copenhagen （2009） 27

Ⅱ Key Concepts in International Environmental Law 31

5 ‘Key Concepts’： Meaning， Underlying Ideas and Classification 33

5.1 ‘Key Concepts’ of International Environmental Law： Meaning and Role 33

5.2 Ethical Sources of International Environmental Law Key Concepts 35

5.2.1 Solidarity 35

5.2.2 Justice 36

5.3 Classification of International Environmental Law Norms 37

6 ‘No Harm’ 39

6.1 Historical Development 39

6.2 Function and Normative Quality 40

6.3 Substantive Obligations 41

6.3.1 Preventing Significant Transboundary Harm 41

6.3.2 No Balancing of Interests 42

6.3.3 Disregard of ‘Due Diligence’ 42

6.3.4 Standard and Burden of Proof 43

6.3.5 Status 44

6.4 Procedural Obligations 44

6.4.1 Contents and Scope 44

6.4.2 Status 45

6.5 Breach of the ‘No Harm’ Rule 45

7 Precautionary Action 47

7.1 Historical Development 47

7.2 References to Precautionary Action in International Environmental Practice 49

7.2.1 Multilateral Environmental Agreements 49

7.2.2 Decisions of International Courts 51

7.3 Conception and Meaning 52

7.4 Effects 54

7.5 Normative Quality and Status 55

8 Polluter Pays 57

8.1 Origin 57

8.2 Applicability and Meaning 58

8.3 Normative Quality and Status 59

9 Common but Differentiated Responsibilities 61

9.1 Historical Development of CBDR 61

9.2 Underlying Ideas and Conceptual Approach of CBDR 63

9.3 Interpretation of CBDR 64

9.4 CBDR in International Environmental Treaty Practice 66

9.4.1 Reference to CBDR in Single MEAs 66

9.4.2 Conditionality of Environmental Protection and Compliance Assistance？ 69

9.5 Normative Quality and Status 69

9.6 CBDR and Future North-South Co-operation 70

10 Sustainable Development 73

10.1 Historical Development 73

10.2 Meaning and Function 76

10.3 Normative Quality and Status 79

10.4 Sustainable Use—A Special Emanation of Sustainable Development 82

10.5 Sustainable Development—An Approach for Bridging the North-South Divide 83

Ⅲ Key Issues in Current International Environmental Law 85

11 Freshwater Resources 87

11.1 Survey 87

11.2 Case Law 92

11.3 General Instruments 94

11.3.1 The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses 94

11.3.2 The UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 96

11.3.3 The 2008 Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers 98

11.4 Specific Instruments 99

11.4.1 Africa 99

11.4.2 America 102

11.4.3 Asia 105

11.4.4 Europe 107

11.4.5 Middle East 111

11.5 Conclusions 112

12 Oceans and Marine Resources 115

12.1 Survey 115

12.2 The Legal Framework： UNCLOS 118

12.3 Protection of the Marine Environment 121

12.3.1 State of the Marine Environment 121

12.3.2 All Types of Pollution 122

12.3.3 Pollution from Ships 126

12.3.4 Pollution by Dumping of Wastes 128

12.3.5 Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Atmospheric Pollution 129

12.3.6 Pollution from Sea-Bed Activities 130

12.3.7 Intervention in Case of Marine Pollution Incidents 132

12.4 Conservation and Management of Marine Living Resources 133

12.4.1 State of the Marine Living Resources 133

12.4.2 Fish 134

12.4.3 Mammals 138

12.5 Conclusions 140

13 Air， Ozone， Climate and Outer Space 145

13.1 Survey 145

13.2 Transboundary Air Pollution 149

13.2.1 LRTAP Convention and Related Protocols 149

13.2.2 Canada-US Air Quality Agreement 153

13.3 Ozone Layer Depletion 154

13.3.1 Ozone Convention 154

13.3.2 Montreal Protocol 155

13.4 Global Climate Change 159

13.4.1 Climate Change Convention 159

13.4.2 Kyoto Protocol 160

13.4.3 From Kyoto to Copenhagen： Building a Post-2012 Climate Protection Regime 164

13.5 Outer Space Activities and Environmental Protection 171

13.6 Conclusions 173

14 Flora， Fauna and Biological Diversity 177

14.1 Survey 177

14.2 Flora and Fauna 181

14.2.1 The Protection of Habitat 181

14.2.2 Regulating Trade in Endangered Species： CITES 184

14.2.3 Protecting Migratory Species 188

14.2.4 Other Instruments 190

14.3 Biological Diversity 192

14.3.1 The Biodiversity Convention 192

14.3.2 Access and Benefit-Sharing： Bonn Guidelines and Nagoya Protocol 196

14.3.3 The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources 198

14.3.4 Trading Genetic Material： The Biosafety Protocol 200

14.4 Forests 201

14.5 Soil 205

14.6 Conclusions 209

15 Wastes and Hazardous Substances 211

15.1 Survey 211

15.2 Control of Transboundary Movements of Wastes 215

15.2.1 The Basel Convention 215

15.2.2 The Bamako Convention 218

15.3 International Regulation of Hazardous Substances 219

15.3.1 The Rotterdam Convention 219

15.3.2 The Stockholm Convention 221

15.3.3 Conventions on Nuclear Materials 222

15.4 Conclusions 224

16 Procedural Environmental Obligations 227

16.1 Basic Observations 227

16.2 Information， Notification and Consultation in Interstate Relations 227

16.2.1 Situations of Likely Transboundary Environmental Harm 228

16.2.2 Situations of Transboundary Environmental Emergency 228

16.3 Environmental Impact Assessment （EIA） 230

16.4 Participatory Rights of Non-Governmental Actors 234

16.4.1 ‘Public Participation’ in General 234

16.4.2 The Aarhus Convention 236

16.5 Conclusions 239

Ⅳ International Environmental Governance Ⅰ：‘Setting the Rules of the Game’ 241

17 International Environmental Governance 243

17.1 Theoretical Premises and Policy Framework 243

17.2 Actors 245

17.2.1 States 247

17.2.2 International Organisations 249

17.2.3 Treaty Bodies 253

17.2.4 Private Actors 255

17.3 Forms of Action 256

17.3.1 Law-Making， Implementation and Ways to Ensure Compliance 256

17.3.2 Treaty-Based Legislative Environmental Governance 258

17.3.3 Treaty-Based Administrative Environmental Governance 259

17.4 Multilevel Governance 261

18 International Environmental Treaty-Making and Treaty Regime-Building 265

18.1 Treaty Negotiation and Treaty Conclusion in General 265

18.1.1 Procedural Aspects 265

18.1.2 Substantive Aspects 267

18.2 Levels of Treaty-Making 268

18.3 Regulatory Approaches to Treaty-Making 269

18.3.1 ‘Framework Convention and Protocol Approach’ 270

18.3.2 ‘Convention and Annexes Approach’ 272

18.4 Simplified Amendment Procedures Regarding Treaties， Protocols and Annexes 273

18.4.1 Amendments of Treaties and Protocols 273

18.4.2 Amendments and Adjustments of Annexes 274

18.4.3 COPS’ Decision-Making Procedures 275

18.5 Conflicts between Different MEAs and Their Settlement 277

18.5.1 Parallel， Overlapping and Conflicting MEAs 277

18.5.2 Article 30 VCLT； Lex Posterior and Lex Specialis； Harmonising Treaty Interpretation 278

18.5.3 Treaty Co-ordination by Means of Interinstitutional Co-operation 279

19 Customary International Environmental Law； Environmental Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes 281

19.1 Customary International Law in General 281

19.1.1 Meaning and Function of Customary International Law 281

19.1.2 Formation of Customary International Law 282

19.2 Customary International Environmental Law 283

19.2.1 The Dynamics of Customary International Environmental Law 283

19.2.2 Examples of Existing or Emerging Rules of Customary International Environmental Law 285

19.3 Environmental Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes 286

20 International Environmental ‘Soft Law’ 289

20.1 Theoretical Premises 289

20.2 Legally Non-Binding Agreements between States 291

20.3 Interinstitutional Non-Legal Arrangements 294

20.4 Recommendations of International Organisations 295

21 Private Environmental Governance 299

21.1 Introduction 299

21.2 Contribution of Private Actors to International Environmental Law-Making 299

21.2.1 NGO Involvement in Environmental Treaty-Making 300

21.2.2 Private Actor Contributions to the Development of Non-Treaty Norms 301

21.3 Environmental Standard-Setting 302

21.3.1 Distinguishing Environmental Standards from Environmental Law-Making 302

21.3.2 Categorising Standards 304

21.3.3 Ensuring Compliance with Private Standards 306

21.3.4 Inherent Limitations of Private Standard-Setting 307

21.4 International Environmental Partnerships 308

21.4.1 The Emergence of Partnerships in International Environmental Law 308

21.4.2 Partnerships in Practice 310

21.4.3 Assessing the Contribution of Partnerships to International Environmental Governance 313

Ⅴ International Environmental Governance Ⅱ： Ensuring Compliance 315

22 Compliance Control 317

22.1 Compliance Control and Assistance as ‘Active Treaty Management’ 317

22.2 The Legal Basis of Compliance-Control Procedures 321

22.3 The Procedural Framework 325

22.3.1 Trigger Mechanisms 326

22.3.2 Verification 328

22.3.3 Evaluation 330

22.3.4 Measures in Response to Non-Compliance 332

22.3.5 Procedural Principles and Safeguards 333

22.4 Institutional Setting 336

22.5 Conclusions 339

23 Compliance Assistance 343

23.1 The Concept of Compliance Assistance 343

23.2 Typology 345

23.2.1 Capacity-Building 345

23.2.2 Transfer of Technology 346

23.2.3 Financial Mechanisms 348

23.3 Conditionality of Assistance 349

23.4 Institutional Setting 351

23.4.1 Tailor-Made Institutions 351

23.4.2 The Global Environment Facility 353

23.5 Conclusions 357

24 Responsibility and Liability 359

24.1 Introduction 359

24.2 State Responsibility 361

24.2.1 2001 ILC Draft Articles 361

24.2.2 Case Law 364

24.3 State Liability 366

24.4 Civil Liability 368

24.4.1 Oil Pollution and Other Hazardous Substances 369

24.4.2 Nuclear Energy 371

24.4.3 Wastes 373

24.4.4 The 1993 Liability Convention 373

24.5 Conclusions 374

25 Environmental Dispute Settlement 377

25.1 Survey 377

25.2 Non-Judicial Dispute Settlement 378

25.3 Judicial Dispute Settlement 379

25.3.1 The ICJ and Other Permanent International Courts 380

25.3.2 International Arbitration 382

25.3.3 Quasi-Judicial Dispute Settlement 383

25.4 Dispute Settlement and Compliance Control 386

Ⅵ Relationship between International Environmental Law and Other Areas of International Law 389

26 Environmental Protection and Human Rights 391

26.1 Environmental Human Rights Protection in General 391

26.2 Environmental Human Rights Protection in Practice 393

26.2.1 United Nations 393

26.2.2 Africa 395

26.2.3 Americas 396

26.2.4 Asia 398

26.2.5 Europe 399

26.3 Environmental Rights of Indigenous Peoples 402

26.4 Rights of Environmental Migrants 405

27 Environmental Protection and International Peace and Security 411

27.1 Peace， Security and the Environment： A Multifaceted Relationship 411

27.2 The Law of Armed Conflict 412

27.2.1 Treaty Law Applicable to International Armed Conflicts 413

27.2.2 Customary Law Applicable to International Armed Conflicts 416

27.2.3 The Law Applicable to Non-International Armed Conflicts 417

27.3 The Applicability of MEAs in Times of Armed Conflict 417

27.4 Environmental Impact of Arms Control and Disarmament Obligations 418

27.5 Conclusions 419

28 Environmental Protection and International Economic Law 423

28.1 Conflict or Complementarity？ 423

28.2 WTO Law 424

28.2.1 The Development of WTO Law 424

28.2.2 The GATT Treaty Framework 426

28.2.3 Case Law Related to Article XX GATT 427

28.2.4 The TBT and the SPS Agreements 430

28.2.5 The WTO Committee on Trade and Environment 432

28.2.6 The Relationship between WTO Agreements and MEAs 433

28.3 Trade Issues beyond the WTO 435

28.4 International Financial Institutions 437

28.5 Conclusions 437

Ⅶ Perspectives 439

Current State of Global Environmental Co-operation 439

Reasons for Deficient Environmental Co-operation 440

North-South Dichotomy 440

Current Challenges and Trends in Global Environmental Co-operation 441

Ensuring More Effective Treaty Compliance 443

Ways and Means to Enhance International Environmental Law 444

Index 447