物理中的理论概念 第2版 英文PDF电子书下载

1 Introduction 1

1.1 An explanation for the reader 1

1.2 How this book came about 4

1.3 A warning to the reader 5

1.4 The nature of physics and theoretical physics 6

1.5 The influence of our environment 7

1.6 The plan of the book 9

1.7 Apologies and words of encouragement 10

1.8 References 10

Case Study Ⅰ The origins of Newton's laws of motion and of gravity 13

Ⅰ.1 Reference 14

2 From Ptolemy to Kepler-the Copernican revolution 15

2.1 Ancient history 15

2.2 The Copernican revolution 18

2.3 Tycho Brahe-the lord of Uraniborg 21

2.4 Johannes Kepler and heavenly harmonies 25

2.5 References 32

3 Galileo and the nature of the physical sciences 34

3.1 Introduction 34

3.2 Galileo as an experimental physicist 34

3.3 Galileo's telescopic discoveries 40

3.4 The trial of Galileo-the heart of the matter 42

3.5 The trial of Galileo 47

3.6 Galilean relativity 48

3.7 Reflections 50

3.8 References 52

4 Newton and the law of gravity 53

4.1 Introduction 53

4.2 Lincolnshire 1642-61 53

4.3 Cambridge 1661-5 54

4.4 Lincolnshire 1665-7 54

4.5 Cambridge 1667-96 60

4.6 Newton the alchemist 62

4.7 The interpretation of ancient texts and the scriptures 65

4.8 London 1696-1727 67

4.9 References 68

Appendix to Chapter 4:Notes on conic sections and central orbits 68

A4.1 Equations for conic sections 68

A4.2 Kepler's laws and planetary motion 72

A4.3 Rutherford scattering 74

Case Study Ⅱ Maxwell's equations 77

5 The origin of Maxwell's equations 79

5.1 How it all began 79

5.2 Michael Faraday-mathematics without mathematics 82

5.3 How Maxwell derived the equations for the electromagnetic field 88

5.4 Heinrich Hertz and the discovery of electromagnetic waves 98

5.5 Reflections 100

5.6 References 102

Appendix to Chapter 5:Useful notes on vector fields 103

A5.1 The divergence theorem and Stokes'theorem 103

A5.2 Results related to the divergence theorem 103

A5.3 Results related to Stokes'theorem 105

A5.4 Vector fields with special properties 105

A5.5 Vector operators in various coordinate systems 106

A5.6 Vector operators and dispersion relations 108

A5.7 How to relate the different expressions for the magnetic fields produced by currents 109

6 How to rewrite the history of electromagnetism 114

6.1 Introduction 114

6.2 Maxwell's equations as a set of vector equations 115

6.3 Gauss's theorem in electromagnetism 115

6.4 Time-independent fields as conservative fields of force 117

6.5 Boundary conditions in electromagnetism 117

6.6 Ampère'slaw 121

6.7 Faraday's law 121

6.8 The story so far 122

6.9 Derivation of Coulomb's law 123

6.10 Derivation of the Bi？t-Savart law 125

6.11 The interpretation of Maxwell's equations in material media 126

6.12 The energy densities of electromagnetic fields 129

6.13 Concluding remarks 133

6.14 References 134

Case Study Ⅲ Mechanics and dynamics-linear and non-linear 135

Ⅲ.1 References 137

7 Approaches to mechanics and dynamics 138

7.1 Newton's laws ofmotion 138

7.2 Principles of'least action' 140

7.3 The Euler-Lagrange equation 143

7.4 Small oscillations and normal modes 147

7.5 Conservation laws and symmetry 152

7.6 Hamilton's equations and Poisson brackets 155

7.7 A warning 157

7.8 References 158

Appendix to Chapter 7:The motion of fluids 158

A7.1 The equation of continuity 158

A7.2 The equation of motion for an incompressible fluid in the absence of viscosity 161

A7.3 The equation of motion for an incompressible fluid including viscous forces 162

8 Dimensional analysis,chaos and self-organised criticality 165

8.1 Introduction 165

8.2 Dimensional analysis 165

8.3 Introduction to chaos 181

8.4 Scaling laws and self-organised criticality 193

8.5 Beyond computation 199

8.6 References 200

Case Study Ⅳ Thermodynamics and statistical physics 203

Ⅳ.1 References 205

9 Basic thermodynamics 206

9.1 Heat and temperature 206

9.2 Heat as motion versus the caloric theory of heat 207

9.3 The first law of thermodynamics 212

9.4 The origin of the second law of thermodynamics 222

9.5 The second law of thermodynamics 228

9.6 Entropy 238

9.7 The law of increase of entropy 240

9.8 The differential form of the combined first and second laws of thermodynamics 244

9.9 References 244

Appendix to Chapter 9-Maxwell's relations and Jacobians 245

A9.1 Perfect differentials in thermodynamics 245

A9.2 Maxwell's relations 246

A9.3 Jacobians in thermodynamics 248

10 Kinetic theory and the origin of statistical mechanics 250

10.1 The kinetic theory of gases 250

10.2 Kinetic theory of gases-first version 251

10.3 Kinetic theory of gases-second version 252

10.4 Maxwell's velocity distribution 257

10.5 The viscosity of gases 263

10.6 The statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics 266

10.7 Entropy and probability 268

10.8 Entropy and the density of states 272

10.9 Gibbs entropy and information 276

10.10 Concluding remarks 278

10.11 References 278

Case Study Ⅴ The origius of the concept of quanta 281

Ⅴ.1 References 282

11 Black-body radiation up to 1895 283

11.1 The state of physics in 1890 283

11.2 Kirchhoff's law of emission and absorption of radiation 284

11.3 The Stefan-Boltzmann law 289

11.4 Wien's displacement law and the spectrum of black-body radiation 297

11.5 References 301

12 1895-1900:Planck and the spectrum of black-body radiation 303

12.1 Planck's early career 303

12.2 Oscillators and their radiation in thermal equilibrium 305

12.3 The equilibrium radiation spectrum of a harmonic oscillator 311

12.4 Towards the spectrum of black-body radiation 315

12.5 The primitive form of Planck's radiation law 318

12.6 Rayleigh and the spectrum of black-body radiation 320

12.7 Comparison of the laws for black-body radiation with experiment 323

12.8 References 325

Appendix to Chapter 12:Rayleigh's paper of 1900'Remarks upon the law of complete radiation' 326

13 Planck's theory of black-body radiation 329

13.1 Introduction 329

13.2 Boltzmann's procedure in statistical mechanics 329

13.3 Planck's analysis 333

13.4 Planck and'natural units' 336

13.5 Planck and the physical significance of h 338

13.6 Why Planck found the right answer 340

13.7 References 343

14 Einstein and the quantisation of light 345

14.1 1905-Einstein's annus mirabilis 345

14.2 'On an heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light' 348

14.3 The quantum theory of solids 354

14.4 Debye's theory of specific heats 358

14.5 The specific heats of gases revisited 360

14.6 Conclusion 363

14.7 References 364

15 The triumph of the quantum hypothesis 366

15.1 The situation in 1909 366

15.2 Fluctuations of particles in a box 366

15.3 Fluctuations of randomly superposed waves 369

15.4 Fluctuations in black-body radiation 371

15.5 The first Solvay conference 373

15.6 Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom 375

15.7 Einstein(1916)'On the quantum theory ofradiation' 383

15.8 The story concluded 388

15.9 References 390

Appendix to Chapter 15:The detection of signals in the presence of noise 391

A15.1 Nyquist's theorem and Johnson noise 391

A15.2 The detection of photons in the presence of background noise 393

A15.3 The detection of electromagnetic waves in the presence of noise 394

Case Study Ⅵ Special relativity 397

Ⅵ.1 Reference 399

16 Special relativity-a study in invariance 400

16.1 Introduction 400

16.2 Geometry and the Lorentz transformation 407

16.3 Three-vectors and four-vectors 410

16.4 Relativistic dynamics-the momentum and force four-vectors 416

16.5 The relativistic equations describing motion 419

16.6 The frequency four-vector 422

16.7 Lorentz contraction and the origin of magnetic fields 423

16.8 Reflections 425

16.9 References 426

Case Study Ⅶ General relativity and cosmology 429

17 An introduction to general relativity 431

17.1 Introduction 431

17.2 Essential features of the relativistic theory of gravity 434

17.3 Isotropic curved spaces 444

17.4 The route to general relativity 448

17.5 The Schwarzschild metric 452

17.6 Particle orbits about a point mass 454

17.7 Advance of perihelia of planetary orbits 461

17.8 Light rays in Schwarzschild space-time 464

17.9 Particles and light rays near black holes 466

17.10 Circular orbits about Schwarzschild black holes 468

17.11 Refefences 471

Appendix to Chapter 17:Isotropic curved spaces 472

A17.1 A brief history of non-Euclidean geometries 472

A17.2 Parallel transport and isotropic curved spaces 473

18 The technology of cosmology 478

18.1 Introduction 478

18.2 Joseph Fraunhofer 478

18.3 The invention of photography 479

18.4 The new generation of telescopes 481

18.5 The funding of astronomy 487

18.6 The electronic revolution 491

18.7 The impact of the Second World War 493

18.8 Ultraviolet,X-ray and y-rayastronomy 495

18.9 Reflections 497

18.10 References 498

19 Cosmology 499

19.1 Cosmology and physics 499

19.2 Basic cosmological data 500

19.3 The Robertson-Walker metric 505

19.4 Observations in cosmology 509

19.5 Historical interlude-steady state theory 515

19.6 The standard world models 517

19.7 The thermal history of the Universe 528

19.8 Nucleosynthesis in the early Universe 536

19.9 The best-buy cosmological model 540

19.10 References 543

Appendix to Chapter 19:The Robertson-Walker metric for an empty universe 543

20 Epilogue 547

Index 548