科研方法与规范（上）PDF电子书下载

Part Ⅰ:Research Methods 1

1．Qualitative Methods 1

1.1 Introduction to Qualitative Research 1

1.1.1 What Is Qualitative Research 1

1.1.2 What Can We Learn from Qualitative Research 1

1.1.3 Some Qualitative Research Methods and Data Forms 2

1.1.4 The Advantages of Qualitative Methods for Exploratory Research 2

1.2 Participant Observation 3

1.2.1 Overview of Participant Observation 3

1.2.2 How to Be an Effective Participant Observer 6

1.3 In-Depth Interviews 10

1.3.1 Overview of In-Depth Interviewing 10

1.3.2 How to Be an Effective Interviewer 11

1.3.3 Managing the Interview 13

1.3.4 Some Techniques for Effective Questioning 14

1.3.5 How to Use Probes 16

1.3.6 How to Use Indirect Probes 16

1.3.7 Taking Field Notes 16

1.3.8 Expanding Notes 17

1.4 Focus Groups 18

1.4.1 Overview of Focus Groups 18

1.4.2 How to Be an Effective Moderator 19

1.4.3 How to Be an Effective Note-Taker 26

2．Quantitative Methods 29

2.1 Introduction to Quantitative Research Method 29

2.1.1 What Is Quantitative Research 29

2.1.2 Features Associated with the Quantitative Approach 29

2.1.3 Data Collection Methods 31

2.2 Sampling 31

2.2.1 Random Selection 31

2.2.2 Systematic Sampling 33

2.3 Survey 34

2.3.1 Questionnaire 34

2.3.2 Interview Survey 39

2.3.3 Secondary Analysis 45

2.4 Experiment 46

2.4.1 Topics Appropriate to Experiments 47

2.4.2 The Classical Experiment 47

2.4.3 Selecting Subjects 50

2.4.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Method 51

2.4.5 Quantification of Data 52

3．Mixed Method Studies 53

3.1 Mixed Methods and Mixed Model Studies 53

3.1.1 Equal Status Mixed Method Designs 54

3.1.2 Dominant-Less Dominant Mixed Method Designs 54

3.1.3 Sequential Mixed Method Designs 54

3.1.4 Parallel/Simultaneous Mixed Method Designs 55

3.1.5 Studies with Multilevel Use of Approaches 55

3.2 Data Collection Strategies and Research Procedures 55

3.2.1 Traditional and Alternative Approaches to Data Collection 55

3.2.2 Data Collection as a Planned Strategy 56

3.2.3 Effects of DataCollection on the Behavior or Responses of the Participants 57

3.2.4 Data Collection Strategies 58

4．Case Studies 62

4.1 Introduction to Case Study 62

4.1.1 The Case Study as a Research Strategy 62

4.1.2 Comparing Case Studies to Other Research Strategies 63

4.1.3 When to Use Each Strategy 63

4.2 Conducting Case Studies:Preparing for Data Collection 65

4.2.1 The Case Study Investigator:Desired Skills 65

4.2.2 Training and Preparation for a Specific Case Study 67

4.2.3 The Case Study Protocol 69

4.2.4 The Pilot Case Study 72

4.3 Conducting Case Studies:Collecting the Evidence 73

4.3.1 Six Sources of Evidence 74

4.3.2 Three Principles of Data Collection 78

Part Ⅱ:Writing a Research Proposal 82

1．General Overview 83

1.1 What Is Research 83

1.2 Types of Research 83

1.2.1 Primary Research 83

1.2.2 Applied Research 84

1.2.3 Market Research 84

1.2.4 Feasibility Research 84

1.2.5 Scholarly Research 84

1.3 What Is a Research Proposal(RP) 85

1.4 Proposal Components—Some Hints 86

1 4.1 Title 86

1.4.2 Abstract 87

1.4.3 Introduction 87

1.4.4 Literature Review 88

1.4.5 Methodology and Methods 89

1.4.6 Results 90

1.4.7 Discussion 90

1.5 Common Mistakes 90

2．How to Prepare 91

2.1．Choose a Topic 91

2.1.1 Step 1:Survey Personal Interest 92

2.1.2 Step 2:Select and Investigate a Trial Topic 92

2.1.3 Step 3:Understand Your Research Purpose 92

2.1.4 Step 4:Analyze Topic Feasibility 92

2.1.5 Step 5:Consider Topic Possibilities 93

2.1.6 Step 6:Consider Task Logistics 94

2.2 Manage Your Time and Task 95

2.2.1 Time Line for the RP 95

2.2.2 Time Schedule 97

2.2.3 Gantt Chart 98

2.3 Budget 99

2.3.1 Specify Costs for Each Line Entry 99

2.3.2 Consider Possible Expense 100

2.3.3 Compare Budget to Available Funds 100

2.3.4 Sample Budgets 101

3．How to Write 102

3.1 How to Apply Theory 102

3.1.1 Establish the Context 102

3.1.2 Point Out Debates and Disjuncture 103

3.1.3 Privilege Elegance over Expansiveness 103

3.1.4 Show Your Knowledge and Expertise 103

3.2 Research Questions 104

3.2.1 Be Evocative 104

3.2.2 Be Relevant 105

3.2.3 Be Clear 106

3.2.4 Be Researchable 106

3.3 Methodology 107

3.3.1 Identify the Research 108

3.3.2 Be Realistic 108

3.3.3 Be Precise 108

3.3.4 Be Flexible 109

3.3.5 Test Your Methods in Advance 109

3.3.6 Revise Research Question and Methods 109

3.4 Background and History 110

3.4.1 Engage Readers with Broad Themes and Topics 110

3.4.2 Illustrate Concepts,Questions,andTheory 110

3.4.3 Demonstrate Experience,Knowledge,and Passion 111

3.5 Concepts and Terminology 111

3.5.1 Avoid Neologisms 112

3.5.2 Be Conceptually Consistent 112

3.5.3 Justify Typologies and Categories 112

3.5.4 Works on Conceptualization 113

4．Style and Assessment 113

4.1 Style 114

4.1.1 Clarity 114

4.1.2 Tone 115

4.1.3 Coherence 116

4.2 Assessment 117

4.2.1 Proposal Check List 117

4.2.2 Evaluation from Outside 118

5．Appendix 120

5.1 Politics and the English Language 120

5.2 The Art of Writing Proposals:Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions 131

5.3 Sample RPⅠ 137

5.4 Sample RPⅡ 139

Part Ⅲ:Actual Writing 146

1．Introductions Writing 146

1.1．Purpose and Importance of Introductions 146

1.2．Complexity in Writing Introductions 147

1.3．Introductions for a Report of Different Study Methods 147

1.3.1 Introductions for aReport of Qualitative Study 147

1.3.2 Introductions for a Report of Quantitative Study 148

1.3.3 Introductions for a Report of Mixed Method Study 148

1.4 Funnel Introductions and Hook Introductions 148

1.4.1 Funnel Introductions 148

1.4.2 Hook Introductions 149

1.5 “Deadly Introduction” 149

1.5.1 Stating with a Platitude or Cliché 150

1.5.2 Using a Dictionary Definition of a Known Word 150

1.5.3 Restatement of the Assignment 151

1.5.4 Using Pivoting Sentence or Paragraph 151

1.6 Five Models of Thesis Paragraph Introduction 152

1.6.1 Model One 152

1.6.2 Model Two 153

1.6.3 Model Three 154

1.6.4 Model Four 155

1.6.5 Model Five 155

2．Body Part Writing 155

2.1 Writing a Good Thesis Statement 155

2.1.1 Definition of Thesis Statement 156

2.1.2 Characteristics of a Good Thesis Statement 156

2.1.3 Tips for Writing a Good Thesis Statement 157

2.1.4 Evaluation Criteria for a Good Thesis Statement 158

2.2 Using Evidences 160

2.2.1 Types of Evidences 160

2.2.2 Rules for Using Evidence 162

2.2.3 Tips for Dealing with Weak Evidence 164

2.3 Organizing the Argument 165

2.3.1 Reasoning Patterns 165

2.3.2 Structuring an Argument in a Written Report 167

2.4 Writing Style 174

2.4.1 Three Types of Writing Style 174

2.5．Diction,Sentences and Paragraphs 176

2.5.1 Diction 177

2.5.2 Concise Sentences 180

2.5.3 Paragraph Structure 182

2.6 Report Organization 188

2.6.1 Sequential Organization 189

2.6.2 Hierarchical Organization 190

2.7 Borrowed Material Extracting and Presenting 196

2.7.1 Direct Quotations 196

2.7.2 Paraphrasing 199

2.7.3 Summarization 202

2.8 Plagiarism 207

2.8.1 Definition of Plagiarism 207

2.8.2 Situations of Plagiarism 208

2.8.3 Types of Plagiarism 208

2.8.4 Ignorant versus Intentional Plagiarism 209

2.8.5 Consequences of Plagiarism 210

2.8.6 Plagiarism Penalties 210

2.8.7 Means to Avoid Plagiarism 211

2.9 Draft Revising and Editing 211

2.9.1 Need for Revising and Editing 211

2.9.2 Revising and Editing Process Considerations 212

2.9.3 Revising and Editing Procedures 214

2.9.4 Computer Functions 217

2.10 Headings 217

2.10.1 Functions of Headings 217

2.10.2 Heading Levels 217

2.10.3 APA Rules for Presenting Headings 219

2.10.4 Additional Rules for Heading Format 219

2.10.5 Additional Rules for Heading Usage 220

2.10.6 Relationship between Headings and Outline 220

3．Writing Abstracts 220

3.1 Function of Abstracts 220

3.2 Information Contained in Abstracts 221

3.3 Guidelines for Writing Abstracts 221

3.4 An Example of Journal Abstracts 222

4．Writing Acknowledgements 222

4.1 Reasons for Writing Acknowledgements 222

4．2 Position of Acknowledgements 223

4.3 Contributors to Be Included 223

4.4 Examples of Acknowledgements 224

5．Writing Conclusions 226

5.1 Purpose of Writing Conclusions 226

5.2 Length of Conclusions 226

5.3 Summary and Discursive Conclusions 226

5.3.1 Summary Conclusions 227

5.3.2 Discursive Conclusions 227

5.4 Best Approaches to Write Conclusions 227

Part Ⅳ:Documenting Sources 229

1．Overview:APA Style versus MLA Style 229

1.1 APA Values Current Information 229

1.2 MLA Values Historical Data as Well as Current Information 230

1.3 APA Style Documentation Is Best for Technological Disciplines 230

2．Parenthetical Reference 231

2.1 Defining Parenthetical Reference 231

2.2 Relationship of Parenthetical Reference and Reference List 232

2.3 Parenthetical Reference in APA Style 232

2.3.1 Rules for the Author Element 233

2.3.2 Rules forthe Date Element 235

2.3.3 Rules for the Page(s)Information 235

2.3.4 Additional Rules for Parenthetical Reference in APA Style 235

2.4 Parenthetical Reference in MLA Style 236

3．Reference List 238

3.1 Reference-Page Format in APA Style(including MLA Style) 238

3.1.1 Reference-Page Margins,Numbering and Heading 238

3.1.2 Arrangement of Entries 238

3.1.3 Specific Rules for Reference Entries 239

3.1.4 Reference-Page Format in MLA Style 242

3.2 Elements of the Entry in APA Style 242

3.2.1 Rules for the Author Element 242

3.2.2 Rules for the Date Element 243

3.2.3 Rules for the Title Element 243

3.2.4 Rules for Publishing Data 245

3.3 Articles and Other Publications in Periodicals 245

3.3.1 Rules for Periodicals 245

3.3.2 Sample Entries for Periodicals 246

3.3.3 Articles and Other Publications in Periodicals in MLA Style 250

3.4 Books and Other Non-Periodical Publications 252

3.4.1 Rules for Non-Periodicals 252

3.4.2 Sample Entries for Non-Periodicals 254

3.4.3 Books and Other Non-Periodical Publications in MLA Style 258

3.5 Miscellaneous Print and Non-print Sources 261

3.5.1 Proceeding of Meetings and Symposia 261

3.5.2 Dissertations and Theses 262

3.5.3 Reviews 263

3.5.4 Audiovisual Media 264

3.5.5 Miscellaneous Print and Non-print Sources in MLA Style 265

3.6 Electronic Sources 267

3.6.1 Internet Sources in APA Style 267

3.6.2 Other Electronic Sources in APA Style 272

3.6.3 Electronic Sources in MLA Style 274

3.7 Non-Recoverable Sources 277

4．General Introduction of Other Styles 278

4.1 ACS(American Chemical Society) 278

4.2 AMA (American Medical Association) 279

4.3 CMS(Chicago Manual of Style) 279

4.4 CSE(Council of Science Editors) 279

4.5 Harvard Referencing System 279

5．Footnotes and Notes in APA Style 280

5.1 Footnotes in Text 280

5.1.1 Content Footnotes 280

5.1.2 Copyright Permission Footnotes 280

5.2 Notes to Tables 281

5.2.1 General Notes 281

5.2.2 Specific Notes 281

5.2.3 Probability Notes 281

5.3 Author Note 282

6．Appendix in APA Style 283

6.1 Identifying and Citing Appendixes 283

6.2 Placement of Appendixes 283

6.3 Body and Headings of Appendixes 284

6.4 Tables as Appendixes 284

6.5 Tests and Questionnaires 284

Appendix A 285

Appendix B 288

Bibliography 290