GENERAL CHEMISTRY EIGHTH EDITIONPDF电子书下载

1 Chemistry and Measurement 1

An Introduction to Chemistry 2

1.1 Modern Chemistry：A Brief Glimpse 2

1.2 Experiment and Explanation 4

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Birth of the Post-it Note？ 5

1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass 6

1.4 Matter：Physical State and Chemical Constitution 9

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography 14

Physical Measurements 16

1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures 16

1.6 SI Units 20

1.7 Derived Units 24

1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis（Factor-Label Method） 27

A Checklist for Review 31

Review Questions 32

Conceptual Problems 32

Practice Problems 33

General Problems 37

Cumulative-Skills Problems 39

Media Activities 40

2Atoms，Molecules，and Ions 41

Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure 42

2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter 42

2.2 The Structure of the Atom 45

2.3 Nuclear Structure； Isotopes 48

2.4 Atomic Weights 50

2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements 53

Chemical Substances：Formulas and Names 55

2.6 Chemical Formulas； Molecular and Ionic Substances 55

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability 56

2.7 Organic Compounds 61

2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 62

Chemical Reactions：Equations 73

2.9 Writing Chemical Equations 73

2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations 74

A Checklist for Review 76

Review Questions 78

Conceptual Problems 78

Practice Problems 79

General Problems 83

Cumulative-Skills Problems 85

Media Activities 85

3Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 86

Mass and Moles of Substance 87

3.1 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight 87

3.2 The Mole Concept 89

Determining Chemical Formulas 93

3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula 93

3.4 Elemental Analysis：Percentages of Carbon，Hydrogen，and Oxygen 95

3.5 Determining Formulas 97

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula 98

Stoichiometry：Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions 102

3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 103

3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction 104

3.8 Limiting Reactant； Theoretical and Percentage Yields 107

A Checklist for Review 113

Review Questions 114

Conceptual Problems 114

Practice Problems 115

General Problems 120

Cumulative-Skills Problems 121

Media Activities 121

4Chemical Reactions 123

Ions in Aqueous Solution 124

4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules 124

4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations 129

Types of Chemical Reactions 133

4.3 Precipitation Reactions 133

4.4 Acid-Base Reactions 136

4.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 144

4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation-Reduction Equations 152

Working with Solutions 155

4.7 Molar Concentration 155

4.8 Diluting Solutions 157

Quantitative Analysis 159

4.9 Gravimetric Analysis 159

4.10 Volumetric Analysis 161

A Checklist for Review 163

Review Questions 165

Conceptual Problems 165

Practice Problems 166

General Problems 170

Cumulative-Skills Problems 172

Media Activities 174

5The Gaseous State 175

Gas Laws 176

5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 176

5.2 Empirical Gas Laws 178

5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 187

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling 188

5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes 194

5.5 Gas Mixtures； Law of Partial Pressures 196

Kinetic-Molecular Theory 200

5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 201

5.7 Molecular Speeds； Diffusion and Effusion 204

5.8 Real Gases 209

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect 213

A Checklist for Review 215

Review Questions 216

Conceptual Problems 217

Practice Problems 218

General Problems 221

Cumulative-Skills Problems 222

Media Activities 223

6Thermochemistry 224

Understanding Heats of Reaction 225

6.1 Energy and Its Units 225

6.2 Heat of Reaction 228

6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change 231

6.4 Thermochemical Equations 234

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lucifers and Other Matches 236

6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction 237

6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction 238

Using Heats of Reaction 242

6.7 Hess’s Law 242

6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 246

6.9 Fuels—Foods，Commercial Fuels，and Rocket Fuels 251

A Checklist for Review 254

Review Questions 255

Conceptual Problems 255

Practice Problems 256

General Problems 259

Cumulative-Skills Problems 262

Media Activities 263

7Quantum Theory of the Atom 264

Light Waves，Photons，and the Bohr Theory 265

7.1 The Wave Nature of Light 265

7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons 269

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays 271

7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 271

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lasers and Compact Disc Players 276

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers 278

7.4 Quantum Mechanics 278

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 282

7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals 282

A Checklist for Review 288

Review Questions 289

Conceptual Problems 289

Practice Problems 290

General Problems 292

Cumulative-Skills Problems 292

Media Activities 293

8Electron Configurations and Periodicity 294

Electronic Structure of Atoms 295

8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 295

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance（NMR） 298

8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table 300

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS X Rays，Atomic Numbers，and Orbital Structure（Photoelectron Spectroscopy） 305

8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table 306

8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms； Hund’s Rule 309

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Levitating Frogs and People 311

Periodicity of the Elements 312

8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table 312

8.6 Some Periodic Properties 313

8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements 320

A Checklist for Review 323

Review Questions 324

Conceptual Problems 324

Practice Problems 325

General Problems 326

Cumulative-Skills Problems 327

Media Activities 327

9Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328

Ionic Bonds 329

9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds 329

9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions 334

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 335

9.3 Ionic Radii 339

Covalent Bonds 341

9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds 341

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 344

9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds； Electronegativity 345

9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas 347

9.7 Delocalized Bonding：Resonance 350

9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 352

9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas 355

9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order 358

9.11 Bond Energy 359

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds 363

A Checklist for Review 365

Review Questions 366

Conceptual Problems 366

Practice Problems 367

General Problems 369

Cumulative-Skills Problems 370

Media Activities 371

10Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory 372

Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding 374

10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion（VSEPR） Model 374

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules 384

10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry 385

10.3 Valence Bond Theory 388

10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding 395

Molecular Orbital Theory 400

10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 400

10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the Second-Period Elements 403

10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding 407

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Human Vision 409

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Stratospheric Ozone（An Absorber of Ultraviolet Rays） 410

A Checklist for Review 410

Review Questions 412

Conceptual Problems 412

Practice Problems 413

General Problems 415

Cumulative-Skills Problems 416

Media Activities 416

11States of Matter； Liquids and Solids 418

11.1 Comparison of Gases，Liquids，and Solids 419

Changes of State 420

11.2 Phase Transitions 420

11.3 Phase Diagrams 430

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Removing Caffeine from Coffee 433

Liquid State 434

11.4 Properties of Liquids：Surface Tension and Viscosity 434

11.5 Intermolecular Forces； Explaining Liquid Properties 436

Solid State 444

11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units 444

11.7 Crystalline Solids； Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 448

11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids 452

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Liquid-Crystal Displays 453

11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions 460

11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction 462

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Automated X-Ray Diffractometry 464

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Water（A Special Substance for Planet Earth） 465

A Checklist for Review 467

Review Questions 469

Conceptual Problems 469

Practice Problems 470

General Problems 474

Cumulative-Skills Problems 476

Media Activities 477

12Solutions 478

Solution Formation 479

12.1 Types of Solutions 479

12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process 481

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 486

12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 487

Colligative Properties 490

12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 490

12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution 496

12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 500

12.7 Osmosis 504

12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions 508

Colloid Formation 509

12.9 Colloids 509

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 514

A Checklist for Review 514

Review Questions 516

Conceptual Problems 517

Practice Problems 518

General Problems 520

Cumulative-Skills Problems 521

Media Activities 522

13Materials of Technology 523

Metals and Metallurgy 524

13.1 Natural Sources of the Metallic Elements 525

13.2 Metallurgy 527

13.3 Bonding in Metals 534

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Superconductivity 537

Nonmetallic Materials 537

13.4 Diamond，Graphite，the Fullerenes，and Nanotechnology 538

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Buckminsterfullerene—A Third Form of Carbon 542

13.5 Semiconductors 542

13.6 Silicon，Silica，and Silicates 546

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Silica Aerogels，the Lightest “Solids” 550

13.7 Ceramics 550

13.8 Composites 552

A Checklist for Review 553

Review Questions 554

Conceptual Problems 555

Practice Problems 555

General Problems 556

Media Activities 557

14Rates of Reaction 558

Reaction Rates 559

14.1 Definition of Reaction Rate 560

14.2 Experimental Determination of Rate 564

14.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration 566

14.4 Change of Concentration with Time 572

14.5 Temperature and Rate； Collision and Transition-State Theories 581

14.6 Arrhenius Equation 585

Reaction Mechanisms 588

14.7 Elementary Reactions 588

14.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism 592

14.9 Catalysis 597

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Seeing Molecules React 602

A Checklist for Review 602

Review Questions 605

Conceptual Problems 606

Practice Problems 607

General Problems 612

Cumulative-Skills Problems 615

Media Activities 616

15Chemical Equilibrium 617

Describing Chemical Equilibrium 618

15.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium 618

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 621

15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria； Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria 628

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots 629

Using the Equilibrium Constant 631

15.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant 631

15.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 632

15.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 634

Changing the Reaction Conditions； Le Chatelier’s Principle 639

15.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants 639

15.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature 642

15.9 Effect of a Catalyst 647

A Checklist for Review 649

Review Questions 649

Conceptual Problems 650

Practice Problems 651

General Problems 655

Cumulative-Skills Problems 658

Media Activities 658

16Acids and Bases 659

Acid-Base Concepts 660

16.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases 660

16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases 662

16.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 664

Acid and Base Strengths 666

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Taking Your Medicine 667

16.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 667

16.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 670

Self-Ionization of Water and pH 673

16.6 Self-Ionization of Water 673

16.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base 674

16.8 The pH of a Solution 677

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores 682

A Checklist for Review 682

Review Questions 683

Conceptual Problems 684

Practice Problems 684

General Problems 687

Cumulative-Skills Problems 688

Media Activities 689

17Acid-Base Equilibria 690

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base 691

17.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria 691

17.2 Polyprotic Acids 698

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Acid Rain 700

17.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria 702

17.4 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 705

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute 710

17.5 Common-Ion Effect 710

17.6 Buffers 713

17.7 Acid-Base Titration Curves 720

A Checklist for Review 724

Review Questions 725

Conceptual Problems 726

Practice Problems 727

General Problems 729

Cumulative-Skills Problems 732

Media Activities 733

18Solubility and Complex-lon Equilibria 734

Solubility Equilibria 735

18.1 The Solubility Product Constant 735

18.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect 739

18.3 Precipitation Calculations 742

18.4 Effect of pH on Solubility 746

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Limestone Caves 748

Complex-Ion Equilibria 749

18.5 Complex-Ion Formation 749

18.6 Complex Ions and Solubility 752

An Application of Solubility Equilibria 754

18.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions 754

A Checklist for Review 757

Review Questions 758

Conceptual Problems 758

Practice Problems 759

General Problems 760

Cumulative-Skills Problems 762

Media Activities 763

19Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 764

19.1 First Law of Thermodynamics； Enthalpy 765

Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 768

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 769

19.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 775

Free-Energy Concept 779

19.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity 779

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Coupling of Reactions 784

19.5 Interpretation of Free Energy 784

Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants 786

19.6 Relating ΔG° to the Equilibrium Constant 786

19.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature 790

A Checklist for Review 793

Review Questions 794

Conceptual Problems 795

Practice Problems 796

General Problems 798

Cumulative-Skills Problems 801

Media Activities 801

20Electrochemistry 802

Half-Reactions 803

20.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions 803

Voltaic Cells 808

20.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells 808

20.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells 811

20.4 Electromotive Force 813

20.5 Standard Cell emfs and Standard Electrode Potentials 815

20.6 Equilibrium Constants from emfs 823

20.7 Dependence of emf on Concentration 826

20.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells 830

Electrolytic Cells 834

20.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts 834

20.10 Aqueous Electrolysis 836

20.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 841

A Checklist for Review 843

Review Questions 844

Conceptual Problems 845

Practice Problems 846

General Problems 850

Cumulative-Skills Problems 852

Media Activity 853

21Nuclear Chemistry 854

Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 855

21.1 Radioactivity 855

21.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 864

21.3 Radiations and Matter：Detection and Biological Effects 869

21.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay 871

21.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes 878

Energy of Nuclear Reactions 882

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Positron Emission Tomography（PET） 883

21.6 Mass-Energy Calculations 884

21.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 888

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident 892

A Checklist for Review 892

Review Questions 894

Conceptual Problems 894

Practice Problems 895

General Problems 898

Cumulative-Skills Problems 899

Media Activities 899

22Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 900

22.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements 901

Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals 903

22.2 Group ⅠA：The Alkali Metals 904

22.3 Group ⅡA：The Alkaline Earth Metals 910

22.4 Group ⅢA and Group ⅣA Metals 916

Chemistry of the Nonmetals 920

22.5 Hydrogen 921

22.6 Group ⅣA：The Carbon Family 924

22.7 Group ⅤA：Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family 929

22.8 Group ⅥA：Oxygen and the Sulfur Family 937

22.9 Group ⅦA：The Halogens 943

22.10 Group ⅧA：The Noble Gases 947

A Checklist for Review Review Questions Conceptual Problems Practice Problems General Problems Media Activities 949

23The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds 958

Properties of the Transition Elements 959

23.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements 959

23.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements 964

Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds 967

23.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes 968

23.4 Naming Coordination Compounds 972

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability 973

23.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 976

23.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes 984

23.7 Crystal Field Theory 985

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from Oxyhemoglobin 992

A Checklist for Review Review Questions Conceptual Problems Practice Problems General Problems Media Activities 993

24Organic Chemistry 998

24.1 The Bonding of Carbon 999

Hydrocarbons 999

24.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 1000

24.3 Alkenes and Alkynes 1008

24.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1012

24.5 Naming Hydrocarbons 1015

Derivatives of Hydrocarbons 1022

24.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 1022

24.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 1027

A Checklist for Review 1029

Review Questions 1029

Conceptual Problems 1030

Practice Problems 1031

General Problems 1034

Media Activities 1035

25Polymer Materials：Synthetic and Biological 1036

Synthetic Polymers 1037

25.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers 1037

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Discovery of Nylon 1040

25.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers 1042

Biological Polymers 1044

25.3 Proteins 1044

25.4 Nucleic Acids 1049